Pistons, Rings, and Rods

Author: Brandon Gries and George Chaddick

Reviewer: Sean Boyle, Southern Illinois University, Automotive Technology
Format Editor: Sean Boyle

1. Overview
1.1 In this chapter you will learn about 3 basic mechanical components inside the
internal combustion engine: the pistons, rings, and connecting rods. These
components play a critical role in the operation of the 4 stroke cycle engine. The
rods connect the pistons to the crankshaft, the rings contact the cylinder bore,
helping seal in compression and providing the right amount of lubrication on the
cylinder wall.
2. Pistons
A piston is an engine component that has a reciprocating action in the
cylinder, from combustion, and acts as the movable end of the
combustion chamber. The other end, or the stationary end is the
cylinder head. Features of a piston include the piston head, the piston
pin, the piston pin bore, skirt, ring grooves and lands, and finally
piston rings.
The piston head: which is the top portion of the piston is exposed to
tremendous amounts of heat and pressure, the piston pin bore or hole
is a hole that extends through the side of the piston and is what
supports the piston pin or the gudgeon pin. The piston pin is what
connects the small end of the connecting rod to the piston. The skirt
of a piston is the lower portion of the piston that is closest to the crankshaft, the skirt helps align
the piston as it moves through the cylinder. A ring groove is an area located below the top of the
piston, and is used to retain the piston rings (refer to section 3 for more information on piston
rings)
2.1 Design
Pistons can have different designs to the piston head or crown. For low cost, lower performance
engines, manufacturers mostly use a flat head piston, or flat top piston. These pistons have
recesses machined into them to provide valve clearance. As for pistons used in higher
performance engines, they usually have raised domes, which increases compression. For diesel
engines the design of the piston is usually dished or concave.

2.2 Material
Pistons can be made out of cast iron, or aluminum alloy. An advantage of a cast iron piston is
that the wear rate is low due to the presence of free carbon, or excess carbon, in the cast iron.
When pistons are made from aluminum alloy, they can be manufactured with small amounts of
copper, nickel, silicon, magnesium, or manganese. This increases the strength of aluminum since
aluminum is a softer metal. Aluminum alloy is a much better conductor of heat versus cast iron.
Some advantages of using aluminum alloy are that these pistons are lighter in weight, allowing
them to reciprocate a higher rpm. These pistons also have a higher thermal conductivity or the
ability to conduct heat, which is why aluminum alloy pistons are sought after for higher
compression engines.
2.4 Measuring Piston to Cylinder Wall Clearance
When putting an engine together, it is imperative to ensure that certain measurements are taken,
and certain clearances are met. Piston to cylinder wall clearance is one of these measurements
that that is very important. For this measurement a couple tools are
used, these tools include, a micrometer, and a bore gauge. Some bore
gauges have a dial on them indicating the exact size of the bore, others
just have the gauge. For gauges that do not have a dial on them an extra
measurement with a micrometer to measure the gauge must be done. A
micrometer is what is used to measure the diameter of the piston, they
usually have one inch range increments. A bore gauge is what is used to
measure the cylinder bore diameter. When using a micrometer to measure, make sure to
use the right micrometer range (example 1-2 inch) that will fit the piston, as well as the
right range for your bore gauge. Manufacturers should have dimensions and
specifications for each piston, pull this information up to know what the specification
should be, this will also help in knowing what range increment to use for the tools.
Measure with the micrometer on the outer most part of the piston skirt, finding the right
spot to measure may take a few times, but is critical to have these measurements exact.
The micrometer must be perpendicular to the skirt, if one side is slightly off, the
measurement will be slightly off. After the measurement is taken, record the results.
Using a bore gauge, put the bore gauge about one inch down into the cylinder to take
your measurement. Rock the gauge back and forth and take the smallest measurement,
the smallest measurement will be when the gauge is perpendicular to the cylinder walls,
after this is done record the results. With a bore gauge that has a dial on it, the measurement will
be on the tool, for gauges that do not have a dial you will want to measure with a micrometer.
Reference the actual measurements to the manufacturer recommended specifications to see if the
piton to cylinder wall clearance is within specification. (For the two figures on the right the top
figure is an example of a micrometer, and the figure below is an example of a bore gauge.)

3 Piston Rings
Pistons are usually equipped with piston rings. Piston rings are
circular metal rings that fit into the piston. These rings aid in helping
the piston provide a seal in the combustion chamber, and also
prevent excess oil from entering the combustion chamber, all while
keeping the cylinder walls lubricated. The piston rings seal off the
combustion chamber by using applied and inherit pressure. Inherit
pressure can be described as the internal spring force that physically
expands the rings dependent on what type of ring it used, and what
material it is made out of (different types of metal expand and
contract at different temperatures). This is made possible by piston
ring gap, piston ring gap is the space between the two ends of the
ring when in the cylinder. Applied pressure is the pressure from the combustion chamber to the
rings. Combustion and compression pressure forces the rings against the cylinder wall.
Typically a piston can be equipped the three different types of rings.
Piston Rings
3.1.1 Compression ring
The compression ring is the closest ring to the top of the piston and it is exposed to
the most combustion chamber pressure and
temperature. The main function of the compression
ring is to provide a seal for the combustion chamber,
and to also transfer heat from the piston, to the
cylinder walls. According to an engineering article from [Link], “The
compression ring transfers 70% of the combustion chamber heat from the piston to
the cylinder wall”.
3.1.2 Wiper Ring
The wiper ring, or sometimes called the Napier ring, or the scraper ring, is the
second piston ring. It’s designed to keep a consistent amount of oil on the cylinder
walls for lubrication, it also acts as a backup for the compression ring in aiding the
seal for compression. All the access oil that isn’t used for lubrication will be scraped
off the cylinder walls, hence the name scraper ring.

3.1.3 Oil control

The last ring on the piston, or the third piston ring is known as the oil control ring.
The oil control rings are usually two thin rings with an
expander or spacer between the two thin rings. Oil can pass
through the piston and through this ring assembly to
lubricate the cylinder walls.

3.2 Ring Face

3.2.1 Intro
There are many different designs and applications for the face of the piston rings. Each
design provides their own benefits. The different designs are as follows.
3.2.2 Rectangular
A very common design, has a plain square face. The whole ring face will touch the
cylinder wall, causing a very low contact pressure.

3.2.3 Taper Faced

This ring is similar to the rectangular ring, but instead of the ring being flat on the
outside, it is angled, or tapered. This will allow the contact area between the cylinder
wall and the ring to be dramatically reduced, which results in higher cylinder wall
contact pressure. Rings with a taper face will provide some oil scraping characteristics.
There is pressure relief due to the combustion gases between the top of the ring and the
cylinder wall pushing the ring inward to the piston.

3.2.4 Barrel faced

The barrel faced ring will have a crown, or an asymmetric face. These rings could be
coated with hard material such as chrome plating, or ceramic chrome plating. Over time
a rectangular ring will eventually adopt a barrel face, due to the fact that the ring will
twist during operation. The advantage with this ring is when supplying a barrel face with
a new ring, the ring in effect is being pre-profiled to its eventual running face shape.

3.2.6 Bronze Insert

The bronze insert ring is very similar to the rectangular ring. The difference is that on
the outside of the ring, there is one or more bronze bands inlaid in a groove that contacts
the cylinder wall, sometimes named "Gold Seal". This is an older design ring and not
used much in today's world, and it was mainly used on diesel engines.

3.2.7 Keystone
The Keystone ring allows clearance between the ring and the piston to slightly vary as
the ring moves radially. It is wedge shaped and the side faces of the ring are tapered.
This greatly reduces the ring sticking on to the piston groove, and is used in an engine
that is producing heavy combustion residue.

3.2.8 Napier
The Napier ring has a "step" machined on the lower part of the contact face, or the area
that contacts the cylinder walls. The upper part of the ring can either be square or
tapered. This ring is also known as the "Nasen" ring. This design provides a twisting
effect, which will twist the ring, during combustion, in the groove of the “step”, allowing
the ring to present a sharp downward edge to the cylinder. This ring is very effective at
scraping excess oil from the cylinder wall.

3.2.9 Slotted Oil Scrapper

Known as the SOC type ring, this ring has two edges that will provide scraping, they are
separated by a groove. In the bottom of the groove, there are a number of slots running
towards the inside of the ring. With this design, it will allow oil that is gathered by the
 two edges to be able to flow through, being dispersed back to the engine through drain
holes on the bottom of the piston groove.

3.2.10 SOC2K
Very similar to the SOC, but the scraping edges are chamfered, or beveled, thus
providing higher contact pressure to the cylinder wall, resulting in better oil scraping.

3.2.11 SOC2ku
This ring is also known as the beveled hook type scraper. It is very similar to the
SOC2K, but has the back of the scraping edges cut away. Doing so will allow oil to be
stored in the area that is created. This design also has an advantage of maintaining its
width as the ring wears over time.

3.2.12 Spring Loaded Scrapers

This ring has two advantages over the other oil control rings, and is also supplied with an
internal coil spring. First, this expander spring helps provide much higher contact
pressure, increasing its oil scraping capabilities. Second, the rings are usually supplied
with a reduced radial thickness, allowing the ring to conform to worn cylinders.

3.3 Material
The most common material used for piston rings is cast iron, sometimes called grey iron.
When cast iron is used for the top ring, it is usually coated with a material called
molybdenum or chrome. Manufacturers do this to prevent cylinder wear. When cast iron is
used as the second piston ring, there is usually no coating. This is because the second ring
isn’t as exposed to the pressures and heat as compared to the first ring, which in turn will not
wear as much. Although cast iron is pretty cost effective, it can also be brittle or break easily.
This is because the grain structure of cast iron can fracture relatively easy. This is why cast
iron isn’t a good choice for high performance engines.
Ductile Iron can also be used to manufacturer piston rings. Ductile iron is very similar to cast
iron but much stronger. This iron has round grains that are very strong and hold onto each
other, which is why it is twice as strong as cast iron. This iron is more commonly used in
diesel engines, since most diesel engines are turbo-charged, which would have a higher strain
on the rings, due to higher combustion pressures.
Steel piston rings are commonly used in higher performance engines. Steel rings are even
stronger than the ductile iron and are easier to manufacturer. The only disadvantage to steel is
that steel is more expensive. These rings are usually used in race cars and NHRA cars. In
order to use steel rings, they must be coated with chrome, partial vapor deposition (PVD), or
gas nitrating. This is so the harder steel does not scuff or mark up the cylinder walls.
3.4 Tools
 In this section you will learn about certain tools that are used on piston rings and pistons,
these tools make working with these precisely machined parts easier in the field.

.
3.4.1 Piston ring installer
The piston ring installer "expander" is essential for proper ring installation.
Place the ring inside the installer. It works like snap ring pliers, pull the
handle in and the ring opens. After carefully place the ring over the piston
and install the ring into the piston groove.

3.4.2 Piston ring compressor

The piston ring compressor is a round tool that is slides
around the piston when the rings are installed. It then
compresses the rings together in order for the piston to
be installed into the engine without breaking a ring. The
tool is typically manufactured from a spring steel or
machined aluminum. It also has the ability to adjust
size for different size pistons. To install a piston follow
the step listen above. Make sure that the rings are fully
compressed inside the ring grooves. Then line up the
piston into the correct cylinder bore and make sure that
the big end of the connecting rod is aligned to the
bearing surface on the crankshaft. After this is done, start tapping the piston into the cylinder,
this is usually done with the handle of a hammer. Do not tap the piston to hard, as you do not
want to slam the big end of the connecting rod onto the crankshaft journal as this may damage
both the bearing and the bearing surface. Once this this done tighten the connecting rod cap
screws to the manufacturer recommended torque specifications. After this is done make sure that
the crankshaft still moves freely.
3.4.3 Piston Ring Groove Cleaner
During engine operation, carbon deposits can form in the back of the compression
ring groove. This carbon must be removed, this is because the carbon deposits in
the grooves can prevent the rings from compressing enough to fit the piston into
the cylinder. When using a ring groove cleaner be careful not to remove
aluminum (if the piston is aluminum) from the back of the grove once clean. If a
piston ring groove cleaner is not readily available, an old compression ring can be
broken off and be ground sharp to clean the deposits. After cleaning the groove,
install the ring and move it around to make sure the ring does not catch or bind in
any spot.
4 Connecting rods
4.1 Operation
A connecting rod is a critical engine component and is what transfers the motion from the pistons
to the crankshaft. These connecting rods are designed to withstand the heat and thrust from the
combustion chamber all while transferring movement from the pistons to the crankshaft.
4.2 Design
There are two basic types of connecting rods, the I-beam, and the H-beam

4.2.1 I-beam
The I-beam rod is mostly used in stock applications. This is because this rod
provides a great combination of lightweight and strength. This design can
handle high compression ratios, while also having good tensile strength.
These beams typically have thicker cross sections to increase strength. This is
because the thickness and strength of the steel in the rod can limit what it can
safely handle.
4.2.2 H-beam
H-beam rods on the other hand have a completely different design all together. This rod will
have two large flat sides that are perpendicular to the piston pin and crankshaft journal, with a
thinner section in the middle. This design is very stiff, this design is able to handle higher
compression loads without bending. H-beam rods are typically used for high performance motors
that produce high power at a lower RPM.
4.3 Piston pins
The piston pin is what connects the piston to the small end of the connecting rod. This hinge
transfers the thrust from the piston and allows the rod to pivot relative to the cylinder axis while
the crankshaft is rotating. This pin must be precisely manufactured to withstand excessive heat
while being able to pivot. If the piston pin is loose inside the piston pin hole, or piston boss hole,
the pin will rattle during engine operation. If the pin is too tight it will restrict the piston
expansion along the pin diameter which will cause piston scuffing.
4.4 Piston Pin Design
Piston pins must stay in the piston, if they don’t, they can gouge the cylinder walls. There can be
two ways this can be done, there can be semi-floating or fully-floating. Semi-floating pins are
pins that are allowed to pivot in the piston pin bore, but the pin is fit onto the small end of the
connecting rod. Fully-floating designed pins are pins that are free to float or rotate in the piston
pin hole and in the small end of the connecting rod. Although there are two different main
designs there can be several semi-floating and fully-floating designs. Semi-floating pistons can
be pinch bolt small end clamped, force fit small end clamped, or piston boss clamped. As for
fully-floating pins, there can be fully-floating end pads, or fully-floating piston pin with circlips.
4.4.1 Semi-Floating Pinch Bolt Small End Clamped
With this method of fastening the small end of the connecting rod to the pin, the middle portion
of the pin can utilize a full or partially formed groove that the connecting rod small end is
connected too. When the small end of the connecting rod is aligned to this groove, movement
takes place between the piston pin and the piston pin boss, or the area around the piston pin hole.
4.4.2 Semi-Floating Force Fit Small End Clamped
With this design, the connecting rod small end is polished with an emery cloth and is heated
immensely until there is dark-blueish color. After that the piston pin is forced or pressed through
both the piston pin hole and the piston pin until it is centrally aligned. When this happens the
small end of the connecting rod will cool, connecting itself to the piston pin. Movement occurs
between the piston pin and the piston boss.
4.4.3 Semi-Floating Piston Boss Clamped
With this method the piston pin is clamped to one side of the piston boss. The connecting rod
small end will be lined with an interference-fit phosphor bronze bush bearing. This bush locates
the piston pin, and provides it with a low-friction surface to pivot on.
4.4.4 Fully-Floating End Pads
If the piston pin is allowed to float, or move, in the piston boss and on the connecting rod small
end. The piston pin much never touch the cylinder walls, this is because it can score the walls. In
this design, to prevent scuffing, end pads are put into place at the ends of the piston pin holes,
these pads can be made from aluminum, brass, or bronze. In this design the piston pin freely
moves, or floats, inside the piston boss.
4.4.5 Fully-Floating with Circlips
With this full floating design, the piston pin provides a bearing surface area to the piston boss,
and to the small end of the connecting rod. In this design the small end of the connecting rod also
utilizes a bronze bush bearing. For the fully-floating pin to stay in the piston pin holes circlips
are used. Circlips are a type of retainer that keeps the piston in from contacting the cylinder
walls.
4.5 Bearings
Most connecting rod bearings in an automotive engine are known as friction bearings.
Friction bearings are bearings that are fixed and have a non-moving bearing surface. They
provide low-friction support surfaces for rotating or sliding components, such as the rod
bearings connecting the connecting rod, to the crankshaft. Most connecting rod bearings have
holes that allow a small film of oil to contact the connecting rod journal to lubricate the
bearing. It is important to use the manufacturer specified bearings for each application. If the
wrong bearings, or bearings that are worn past the allowable amount, are put into place this
can cause these bearings to seize. Below are two figures, the figure on the bottom left are
bearings that are worn past the allowable amount and cannot be reused. The figure on the
right shows an example of not only the oil passage holes, but it shows bearings that can be
reused, since they are still within specification.

4.6 Measuring Connecting Rods

The lower end of the connecting rod, what connects the connecting rod to the crankshaft, is most
commonly called the big end. The upper part, or the part that connects the piston pin to the
connecting rod is most commonly called the small end. Measuring these components is just as
critical as measuring piston to cylinder wall clearance as stated in section 2.4. Using a bore
gauge measure the big end bore diameter with the connecting rod cap installed and torqued to the
manufacturer specification. Record the results and reference them to the manufacturer’s
specification. It is important that the measurement is within the specification. If the reading is
under specification, there will be excess bearing crush, which can deform the bearing while also
reducing oil clearance. If it is over specification, the connecting rod will not receive the
appropriate crush needed which can result in the bearing spinning inside the journal. It is also a
good measure to check if the big end is out of round as well. To check this use the same bore
gauge, measure in two spots that are one hundred and eighty degrees from each other. These
measurements should be exactly the same for a perfectly round big end, if not, take the
difference of the measurements and refer to manufacturer specifications to see if the rod can be
reused.
Depending on if the design of the small end is semi-floating, or fully-floating, measurements
will be different, it is important to know design being measured, as always check manufacturer
specifications to see which design the connecting rod has. This measurement will be the same as
measuring the big end. The only difference with this measurement is that the piston pin hoe
should also be measured as well.
4.7 Measuring Bend and Twist
Inspecting the connecting rods for bend and twist is a must. This is because a bend in the rod can
cause the centerline of the big and the small end of the connecting rod to be out of alignment. To
measure this a tool called a rod checker. To use this tool place the big end of the connecting rod
onto the rod checkers bore support, with a straight piston pin inserted into the small end of the
connecting rod. The rod checkers upper head will rest onto the exposed surface of the piston pin
on both sides. If you cannot insert a feeler gauge into the spots that the upper head is resting on,
there is not bend. If a feeler gauge can be inserted, the rod is bent, record what size feeler gauge
was used and refer to manufacturer specifications.
When checking for twist, with the big end of the connecting rod still in the rod checkers bore
support. Place the rod checkers head on both sides of the actual piston pin. Once again try to
insert a feeler gauge into the spots that the head is resting on. After doing so if a feeler gauge can
be inserted record what size gauge was used, then check with manufacturer specifications.
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