MODULE 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

LAND AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Land and Water Management Engineering broadly implies the application of engineering principles to
the solution of land and water management problems. The phrase ‘Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering ‘ is also commonly used to mean the same as ‘ Land and Water Management
Engineering’. Conservation means the utilization of these resources to sustain a high level of
production indefinitely.

What is Land Resource?

Land and Land Resource refer to a delineable area of the earth’s terrestrial surface, encompassing all
the attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface, including those of the near -
surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes, rivers,
marshes and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers associated groundwater and geo-
hydrological reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and physical
results of past and present human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads,
buildings, etc.)

Land is naturally occurring finite resource. It provides the base for survival of living beings. It holds
everything that constitutes terrestrial ecosystems. Increased demand on land in modern times due to
the rise in human population and resultant activities has resulted in degradation of land quality and
quantify, decline in crop production and competition for land.

What is Water Resources?

Water Resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful. All living things require
water to grow and reproduce. Water Resources are sources of water that are useful of potentially
useful to humans. It is important because it is needed for life to exist.

Uses of Water Resources?

1. Agricultural
2. Industrial
3. Household
4. Recreational
5. Environmental activities

Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water. Only 2.5 % of water on the earth is fresh water,
and over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. Water demand already exceeds
supply in many parts of the world and many more areas are expected to experience this imbalance in
the near future. It is estimated that 70%of world-wide water use is for irrigation in agriculture.

Climate change will have significant impacts on water resources around the world because of the
close connections between the climate and hydrologic cycle. Due to the expanding human population
competition for water is growing such that many of the world’s major aquifers are becoming
depleted. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most wide spreed, especially In
undeveloped countries, is the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters .
 LESSON II:
ROLE IRRIGATION AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

ENGINEERING IN LAND AND WATER MANAGEMANT

Land and Water Management Engineering broadly implies the application of engineering principles
to the solution and land and water management.

Scope of Land and Water Management

1. Soil erosion control
2. Moisture conservation
3. Land development
4. Irrigation
5. Groundwater Development and wells
6. Agricultural Drainage
7. Water shed management

Soil erosion control refers to the protection of soil from erosive action of natural agencies like water
and wind.
Land development refers to reclaiming land from conditions which make the land unsuitable for
conservation.
Land grading for making the land suitable for irrigation is also sometimes termed as land development
Groundwater development and well deal with the exploitation of underground water resources
Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to land for crop production.
Drainage refers to the removal of excess water not needed or otherwise harmful for crop growth.
Watershed Management refers to a combination of practices to achieve objectives like reduction in
floods or reducing the sediment outflow in the area.

LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

The different areas of land and water management engineering have a significant role in agricultural
production. Increased agricultural production can be achieved either by bringing new areas under
cultivation. Land and water management engineering practices have a role in both these alternatives.
New areas are brought under cultivation by suitable land reclamation methods.

One of such methods is the reclamation of areas under forest and shrubs, which involve the
operations of land and clearing and grading. Land under ravines or deep gullies are reclaimed by
adopting suitable soil conservation measures. Agricultural drainage helps in reclaiming areas under
waterlogged or salt- affected conditions.

Land and Water management practices to increase agricultural productivity

1. Control of soil erosion in agricultural lands.
2. Proper design of water application systems.
3. Scheduling of irrigations based on crop water requirements; and
4. Removal of excess water not required by the crops

Several Factors need to be considered maximum agricultural production

1. Proper Land preparations
2. Use of improved seeds
3. Use of optimum dosage of fertilizers
4. Efficient application of water
5. Control of insects and pets; and
6. Carrying out all agricultural operations at right time.
Land and water management measures form of integral part of the agricultural production
technology and are a prerequisite for the efficient utilization or all other inputs. Neglect of or
inadequate affection to any of the above last measures will not only reduce agricultural production
but also will lead to poor utilization of other inputs.

Soil and Water Conservation

Soil and Water Conservation consist of prevention and control of prevention and control of soil
erosion caused due to wind and water. It also includes conserving rain water for the purpose of crop
production. Soil erosion severely affects hilly areas because of the steep slopes. In hilly areas
permanent agriculture is not possible without adopting soil conservation measures.

Landslides and slips are other problems of hilly areas. Water erosion is also responsible for
continuously washing away the top soil in agricultural lands. Larges areas around the world are
menaced with soil erosion. Areas under rain fed agriculture are particularly affected by erosion both
by water and wild.

The ultimate potential of irrigation from the available water resources is limited. Considerable part of
the agricultural production areas will continue to be rain fed. Proper utilization of the rainfall and
moisture conservation is very important.

In high rainfall areas, the problem is to dispose the rain water without causing damage to the land
where as in low rainfall areas; the problem is to to conserve the rain water. Dry farming is a system of
soil and water management practices suited to arid and semiarid areas for conservation and efficient
use of soil moisture.

Groundwater and Wells

Groundwater forms a substantial part of the total water resources and provides water for irrigation,
municipal supply and industrial use. Unlike mineral resources, groundwater gets replenished by the
natural process of recharge. Groundwater utilization should therefore, be properly planned to achieve
a balance between replenishment and extraction in order to maintain a perennial supply.

Irrigation and Irrigation Systems Management

Irrigation is an important aspect towards contributing to increased agricultural production. At

present, China and India have the world’s largest irrigated areas. In view of the large areas under
irrigation, the benefits resulting from efficient water management could be significant. In the last two
to three decades, there has been a phenomenal growth in the irrigated areas in the Asian region. In
all most all of the countries in the Asian region considerable number of irrigation systems have been
constructed. However, the performance of these irrigation systems has come in for considerable
criticism.

The major function envisaged for the command area development projects.
1. Modernization and efficient operation of irrigation systems as well as development of main
drainage systems beyond the farmers block of 40 ha.
2. Construction of filed channels
3. Land shaping and Land levelling
4. Construction of field drains
5. Lining of field channel/s water courses
6. Exploitation of groundwater through tube wells, open wells etc.
7. Adoption and enforcement of suitable cropping patterns
8. Enforcement of a suitable rostering system of distribution of water among farmers
9. Preparation of plan of input supply for credit, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides etc.
10. Strengthening of existing extension, training and demonstration organizations.
Agricultural Drainage

Application of excess water to crops, either due to rainfall or due to irrigation can
harm crop production. The disposal of rain water, though on a wider scale is a flood
control problem, is of serious concern to agricultural lands. Rain water not required
by the crops has to be safely conveyed to the drainage system.

Generally, the problem of surface drainage exists in varying degrees in most of the
irrigated areas. It is particularly serious in flat land with inadequate outfall.
Constructions of roads, railways and canals have blocked the natural surface drainage
in several places aggravating the drainage problem.

In some areas, either due to extensive canal irrigation or due to the geological
conditions of the soil substrata, the underground water level rises to such an extent so
as to affect crop growth. Such areas are said to be waterlogged. Rise of the
underground water level could in some areas bring up harmful salts to the surface
layers of the soil.

The Indus plain lying in India and Pakistan is an example of the drainage problems
resulting from large scale irrigation. Measures are now being taken to provide both
surface and subsurface drainage systems.

Watershed Management
Watershed management involves a combination of practices which could include
agricultural, forestry and engineering measures to achieve certain objectives of land and
water management on a regional basis. The objectives could be flood control, water
conservation or sediment reduction.

Planning for integrated soil conservation measures in the catchments of large reservoirs in
order to reduce the sediment inflow into them is an example. The reservoirs constructed for
irrigation and power could be silted up prematurely unless soil erosion is controlled in their
catchments.

Construction of storage ponds either for flood control or for water storage for irrigation,
channel improvement measures etc., come under the purview of watershed management.
Planning for watershed management requires detailed information about the land use and
hydrology of the area.

Aerial photographs and remote sensing techniques are useful in obtaining information for
planning watershed management projects. Watershed management projects have been
initiated in the catchments of several river valley projects in India with a view to reduce the
sedimentation of the
reservoirs.

Computer Applications
With the availability of computers, a large number of problems in land and water
management are being approached using computer applications. Computers are being used
for implementing mathematical models for estimating runoff, surface irrigation system
design, canal operation, design of sprinkler and trickle systems, drainage system design etc.
A large number of problems relating to
groundwater and groundwater management are solved using computers. Computers are
also being widely used in data base management, interpretation of remote sensing data and
geographic information systems.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are emerging as an important and useful

computerized information management tool to support resource management applications.
The GIS allows resource managers to input, manage, analyze, manipulate, and display
geographic data using computers.

LESSON III
Perspective of Irrigation and Water Resources in Agricultural Development

Status and Trends in Land and Water Resources

The availability of land and water to meet national and global demands for food and
agriculture production have been put into sharp relief following the recent rise in
commodity price levels (and associated volatility) and increased large-scale land acquisition.
The social impact of rapid food prices inflation has hit the poorest hardest. The buffering
capacity of global agricultural markets to absorb supply shocks and stabilize agricultural
commodity prices is tied to the continued functioning of land
and water systems. At the same time, climate change brings additional risks and further
unpredictability of harvests for farmers due to warming and related aridity, shifts in rainfall
patterns, and the frequency and duration of extreme events. While warming may extend the
limit of agriculture in the northern hemisphere, it is anticipated that key agricultural systems
in lower latitudes will need to cope with new
temperature, humidity and water stresses (FAO 2011).
ECB-Fundamentals of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering 8ECB-Fundamentals of
Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering 9

❖ The Present Status of Land and Water

Over the last 50 years, land and water management has met rapidly rising demands for food
and fiber. In particular, input-intensive, mechanized agriculture and irrigation have
contributed to rapid increases in productivity. The world’s agricultural production has grown
between 2.5 and 3 times over the period, while the
cultivated area has grown only by 12 percent. More than 40 percent of the increase in food
production came from irrigated areas, which have doubled in
area. In the same period, the cultivated area of land per person gradually declined to less
than 0.25 ha; a clear measure of agricultural intensification.
Agriculture currently uses 11% of the world’s land surface for crop production, and accounts
for 70% of all water withdrawn from aquifers, streams and lakes (FAO 2011).

❖ Land and Water Resources in Rainfed Agriculture

Rainfed agriculture is the predominant agricultural production system worldwide. As

practiced in highland areas and in the dry and humid tropics, it is the system in which poorer
smallholder farmers predominate and where the risks of resource degradation are highest.

Soil nutrient availability in many rainfed lands tends to be low, and sloping terrain and
patterns of rainfall and runoff contribute to erosion. High temperatures and low and erratic
precipitation often make soil moisture availability inadequate, and techniques to improve
water availability (such as water harvesting) are expensive.
Higher levels of input and management can increase productivity, but many farmers cannot
afford the costs or risks. All these factors affecting land and water for rainfed agriculture as
practiced by the poor contribute to their vulnerability and to their food insecurity (FAO
2011).

Types of Rainfed Systems

SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND SELECTED EXAMPLES

Rainfed Agriculture: Highlands Low productivity, small-scale subsistence
(low-input) agriculture; a variety of crops on
small plots plus few animals.
Rainfed Agriculture: Dry tropics Drought-resistant cereals such as maize, sorghum
and millet. Livestock consists often of goats and
sheep, especially in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of
Africa, and in India. Cattle are more widespread
in southern Africa and in Latin America.
Rainfed Agriculture: Humid tropics Mainly root crops, bananas, sugar cane and
notably soybean in Latin America and Asia.
Maize is the most important cereal. Sheep and
goats are often raised by poorer farmers while
cattle are held by wealthier ones.
Rainfed Agriculture: Subtropics Wheat (the most important cereal), fruits (e.g.
grapes and citrus) and oil crops (e.g. olives).
Cattle are the most dominant livestock. Goats are
also important in the southern Mediterranean,
while pigs are dominant in China and sheep in
Australia.
Rainfed Agriculture: Temperate Main crops include wheat, maize, barley,
rapeseed, sugar beet and potatoes. In the
industrialized countries of Western Europe, the
United States and Canada, this agricultural system
is highly productive and often combined with
intensive, penned livestock (mainly pigs, chickens
and cattle).

Land and Water Resources in Rainfed Agriculture

Rainfed agriculture is the predominant agricultural production system worldwide. As
practiced in highland areas and in the dry and humid tropics, it is the system in which poorer
smallholder farmers predominate and where the risks of resource degradation are highest.
Soil nutrient availability in many rainfed lands tends to be low, and sloping terrain and
patterns of rainfall and runoff contribute to erosion. High temperatures and low and erratic
precipitation often make soil moisture availability inadequate, and techniques to improve
water availability (such as water harvesting) are expensive. Higher levels of input and
management can increase productivity, but many farmers cannot afford the costs or risks.
All these factors affecting land and water for rainfed agriculture as practiced by the poor
contribute to their vulnerability and to their food insecurity (FAO 2011).

❖ Land and Water Resources in Irrigated Agriculture

Irrigated systems have expanded in recent years to bring water control, which, together with
rapid increases in water productivity, has greatly boosted agricultural production and
incomes. However, most irrigated farming systems are performing well below their
potential, and there is considerable scope for improving land and water productivity.
Groundwater abstraction has provided an invaluable source of ready irrigation water, but
has proved almost impossible to regulate. As a result, agriculture withdrawals of
groundwater are intensifying and some key aquifers are being depleted. Water quality is
deteriorating, with impacts from irrigation on both surface and groundwater, and the
salinization of irrigated lands is a growing problem. Competition for water from domestic
and industrial
users is growing fast, and many countries and basins face water scarcity with reduced
quantities available to irrigation. New impoundments and diversions have higher marginal
costs and pose increasing environmental challenges. Recycled water can increase supply, but
it is a limited and costly resource and it needs careful management (FAO 2011).

❖ Agricultural Demand Towards to 2050

It is expected that world population will grow from the current about 6.9 billion to about 9
billion in 2050. Demand for food and fiber will grow more quickly as incomes and standards
of nutrition rise and populations move towards more land and water-intensive diets, in
particular the consumption of more meat and dairy products. Current trends and model
simulations indicate that global cereal demand will grow from roughly 2.1 billion tons today
to about 3 billion tons in 2050 (FAO, 2006b). Thus, by 2050, the world will be demanding the
production of almost an extra billion tons of cereal grain annually, and 200 million additional
tons of livestock products (FAO 2011).

Module 2
Fundamentals of Agricultural and
Biosystems Engineering

LESSON I
Earth and Sun Relationship

The Basics of Earth – Sun Relationships

The sun, the brightest star in our sky, is a major factor in creating earth’s climates. The sun,
composed of hydrogen, helium, and other gases, that rotates on an axis at about the same
angle as the earth’s axis. Only a tiny fraction of the power generated by the sun reaches the
earth. It is the earth's relationship to the sun, and the amount of light it receives, that is
responsible for the seasons and biodiversity. The amount of sun a region receives depends
on the tilt of the earth's axis and not its distance from the sun.

Measuring incoming solar radiation – This being so, it is obvious that we should start with
some understanding and evaluation of how much energy we actually get from the Sun. Over
the years, we have developed a number of ways of doing this. Most of these have involved
measuring solar intensity here on the surface, and then estimating how much of the original
incoming radiation was absorbed and how much was scattered and reflected by the various
components of the intervening
atmosphere. Estimates are never as good as actual measurements. With the development of
artificial satellites in the late 1970’s, however, it became possible
for the first time to directly measure insolation (incoming solar radiation) at the “outside” of
the Earth’s atmosphere; and equally important directly measure outgoing radiation
from the Earth and its atmosphere. This latter measurement is spoken of as being of
equal importance, because the two components of the global budget must balance
assuming that long-term storage is negligible. Having both readings allow us to check
on the validity of this assumption.
The Solar Constant – Satellite measurements over a period of twenty-two years (two
complete eleven-year sunspot cycles), have produced a value for incoming solar radiation
(insolation) at the “top” of the Earth’s atmosphere of 1,366.1 joules per square meter per
second [Scafetta & West, 2005]. This is the new solar constant. It replaces earlier estimates,
and will be replaced by a better value in the fullness of time. This is the starting point for all
current studies of the various heat budgets of the Earth.

Vernal equinox year – Most monetary budgets are based on the period of one year, and
heat budgets use this same type of period for much the same reasons. Heat budgets,
however, benefit by using the vernal equinox year rather than the calendar year. The vernal
equinox year is the time it takes the Earth to go from the instant of one March equinox to
the instant of the next March equinox. For the next several centuries, this year will have a
value of 365.2424 days or 3.155694336 x 107 seconds.

Annual global budget constraint – This is a simple multiplication of the solar constant by the
number of seconds in the vernal equinox year produces the global constraint or outer limit
of the Earth’s annual heat budget. This value is some 4.311 x 1010 joules per square meter
per year, measured normal to the direction of insolation at the outside of the Earth’s
atmosphere that is, for the effective terrestrial disc of interception. However, outgoing
radiation is produced by the entire global surface. Since the area of a sphere is exactly four
times the area of a circle of equal radius, we must divide the above number
by four to produce a budget constraint for a unit area of global surface. This gives us a value
of 1.07775 x 1010 joules per square meter of global surface per year.

Insolation variations – Although the solar constant is a mathematical constant, the real
amount of insolation that is received by any square meter of surface in any one second at
the surface of the Earth varies substantially from place to place and from time to time. Many
of these variations are systematic, and the magnitude of the variation is (more or less) easily
calculated. This makes prediction of future values a relatively simple matter. Some variations
especially those related to solar emissivity and atmospheric conditions appear to be random
at this time. The magnitude of these variations, therefore, cannot be directly predicted, but
must be estimated using statistical methods.

The five controls of global climate change – It is the amount of insolation received and
absorbed by any part of the Earth’s surface at any given time that is subject to five major
controls:
1. Solar emissivity;
2. Earth-Sun distance;
3. atmospheric attenuation;
4. angle of incidence; and
5. the albedo of the surface.

Since the Sun is the only significant source of energy for the Earth’s heat budgets, these five
factors are on the only ones that can have a significant effect on global climates. We will
examine each of these five factors.

There are three other factors that affect the distribution of climates over the face of the
globe: latitude, altitude, and continental position. These factors do play a significant role in
atmospheric attenuation, angle of incidence, and the albedo of the surface, and will be
touched upon in those sections. However, they do not really affect Earth – Sun relationships,
and must be dealt with more fully in discussions of regional rather than global heat budgets.
❖ Variations in Solar Emissivity
Measuring solar variability – Variations in solar emissivity are due to processes and
occurrences taking place within the Sun itself, and affect the Sun’s emissivity from its
photosphere. Before the advent of direct measurements of solar emissivity by artificial
satellites in the late 1970’s, variations in solar emissivity were estimated from surface
measurements for the recent past. Estimates for the more distant past were derived from
observations of sunspot numbers and groupings, and from concentrations of cosmogenic
isotopes in sediments and organic materials.

Period of direct measurement - We have been using satellite measurements of solar

emissivity only since 1978. During this period of measurement, the variation in solar
emissivity has been slight once the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit has been factored out.
This non-orbital variation has been on the order of 0.1%; but it must be borne in mind that
the period of record is still small less than thirty years so far. Most climatologists consider a
thirty-year record the absolute minimum period for reasoned characterizations. They feel
much more comfortable with a sixtyyear record, and don’t really begin to relax until they
have ninety years or more.

Period of surface measurements – Before satellite measurements were available, the

intensity of solar radiation was measured at the surface—usually in deserts or at higher
mountain elevations. Such records date back to the seminal work of Abbot at the
Smithsonian from 1902 to 1954. These measurements are limited in their value by the
natural variability of insolation from place to place and time to time over the face of the
Earth due to non-solar factors, and by significant variations in the measurement instruments
themselves.

Sunspot activity and solar emissivity – There is a strong positive correlation between
sunspot activity and solar emissivity. Although the first recorded mention of sunspots dates
to China some 2800 years ago, systematic observations and recordings date only to the
invention and spread of telescopes in the seventeenth century. Even then, data were
sketchy and comparisons unreliable. Only in the last three-hundred years has data been
gathered that meet even the most rudimentary standards of scientific acceptance.

Cosmogenic isotopes and solar emissivity – There is also believed to be a strong inverse
correlation between solar emissivity and the concentration of cosmogenic isotopes. Both the
concentration of beryllium-ten in ice cores and sediments and the concentration of carbon-
fourteen in tree rings are thought to be inversely related to emissivity. Measurements of
these isotopes allow us to hypothecate solar emissivity back through periods when neither
direct measurements of insolation were available nor sunspot activity accurately observed.
Using these measurements, we have been able to hypothecate sunspot activity (and, by
derivation, solar emissivity) back some 11,400 years [Solanki et al, 2004].

Solar emissivity and climate change – The correlation between these various proxy
estimates of past solar emissivity and historic climatic changes is strong but not conclusive.
There is measurable correlation between increased sunspot activity and the Medieval Warm
Period (1100 to 1250); and a very strong correlation between decreased sunspot activity
(especially the Maunder Minimum) and the Little Ice Age (1450 to 1850).
Time lag of insolation forcing – It should be noted that although local temperatures are
strongly forced by variations in insolation (witness the temperature changes from day to
night), global temperatures respond much more slowly due to the enormous heat capacity
and thermal inertia of the world ocean. It may take several years for any significant change
to be observed. This, in turn,
depends upon the magnitude of the variation and in which part of the solar spectrum the
variation is concentrated.

Emissivity variations and the solar spectrum – Most variations in solar emissivity have been
recorded in the ultraviolet portion of the solar spectrum. The observed variations in the
visible portion have shown a much lesser magnitude, and the variations in the infrared
portion have had the least variance of all.

Long term changes – The consensus of informed opinion is that there has been an increase
in solar emissivity over the past two centuries. The magnitude of this increase and the
magnitude of its effects on global temperatures are both the subject of strong scholarly
argument.

Very long-term changes – The Sun is gradually expanding and getting hotter. Astronomers
estimate that the emissivity of the Sun is increasing by some 10% over each billion years.
The role of solar emissivity in climate change – Scholars have advanced a large number of
hypotheses as to the role of solar emissivity in climate change. Simple thermodynamics tells
us that there is a role. Most published studies suggest that the observed variations (since
1978) appear to be too small to account for major climate changes on their own. Variations
on the order of 0.1% require some sort of feedback mechanism in order to produce the
climatic changes that the historical record suggests. It should be noted that these studies are
based on largely theoretical models of energy balance. However, a recent study [Scarfetta &
West, 2006] based on an empirical rather than theoretical model suggests that emissivity
increases account for as much as 45% to 50% of the 1900-2000 global warming, although
only 25% to 35% of the 1980-2000 period.

❖ Variations in the Earth – Sun Distance

Mean Earth – Sun distance – We must start off by emphasizing that the mean distance
between the Earth and the Sun (averaged over the course of the year) is not subject to
significant change. It is established by the physical laws governing planetary motions.
Although the mean stays the same, the actual distance at any given instant does vary over
the course of the year, and this annual variation is in its turn subject to variation over the
course of a much longer time span. This variation does not affect the Solar Constant, which is
defined at a distance of one Astronomical Unit. It does affect how much insolation is
received by each hemisphere over the course of a year, and how intense is the seasonal
(summer versus winter) variation. These variations, in turn, can and do affect three of the
controls of global climate: attenuation of insolation
by the atmosphere, angle of incidence of insolation, and the albedo of both the atmosphere
and the surface of the Earth. Therefore, it behooves us to understand these orbital
variations.

The Inverse-Square Law – Solar radiation obeys the inverse-square law. That is, its intensity
in inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the Earth (the receptor) and
the Sun (the emitter). This distance, in turn, varies with the position of the Earth at any given
time on its annual orbit of the Sun; and with the longer-term (about 100,000 years) cycle of
the variations in the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit.
Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit – At the present time (2006), the eccentricity of the Earth’s
orbit is roughly 0.016726, which is not much by planetary standards. A truly circular orbit
would have an eccentricity of zero. The greater the eccentricity, the more elongated the
orbital ellipse becomes.

Perihelion – The earth is closest to the sun on or about the fourth of January each year. This
date will vary over the next several decades from the 2nd to the 5th depending upon a
number of astronomic factors that need not concern us at this moment. At the instant of
perihelion, the amount of energy that will be received by one square meter at the outside of
the earth’s atmosphere will approximate 1,413 joules per second an increase over the Solar
Constant of some 3.43%.

Aphelion – The earth is farthest from the sun on or about the 4th of July each year. This date
will vary from the 3rd to the 7th over the next several decades, depending upon the same
astronomic factors mentioned above. At the time of aphelion, the amount of energy that will
be received by one square meter at the outside of the earth’s atmosphere will approximate
1,322 joules per second a decrease over the Solar Constant of some 3.26%.

Total Current Orbital Variation – The total variation in incoming insolation from aphelion to
perihelion is 6.7% or 91 joules per second per square meter.

Periodic Variations in Eccentricity – The eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit varies over a cycle
of roughly 100,000 years. On the one hand, it approaches zero eccentricity (a circular orbit).
At that value, the variation in insolation from aphelion to perihelion becomes virtually
insignificant. At the other extreme, the eccentricity approaches 0.06. At that value, the
annual variation in insolation from aphelion to perihelion increases to a range of roughly
24% of the mean value.

Eccentricity and Climate Change – Although this increase has no effect on the annual global
heat budget (the solar constant remains the same) it has a very definite effect on the
hemispherical and seasonal heat budgets. When combined with the precession of the
equinox and the variation in obliquity, the result is a strong increase in the seasonal range of
temperature. This 100,000 year cycle of variations in the Earth’s eccentricity is one of the
three cycles upon which the

Milankovich Hypothesis is based. Recent Trend in Eccentricity – The Earth’s eccentricity is in

the diminishing portion of its 100,000 year cycle. That is, each passing year finds the
eccentricity slightly less; and the seasonal variation slightly less, as well.

❖Atmospheric Attenuation
When insolation starts to penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere, three things happen to it. Some
of it will be absorbed, and go to heating the atmosphere. Some of it will be scattered. Some
of this scattered insolation will end up in outer space (earthshine), and some of it will find its
way to the Earth’s surface (skylight). The remaining insolation will pass through the
atmosphere undiverted and unimpeded and strike the Earth’s surface as direct sunshine. To
understand why these things take place, we have to look at the nature of insolation.
The Photon Hypothesis – Let us consider insolation to consist of a stream of photons.
Photons are defined as massless packets of energy traveling at the speed of light (c). As they
travel, the photon’s energy contents are believed to alternate rhythmically between
electrostatic and electromagnetic states.
Frequency – The time rate at which this alternation occurs is called the frequency of the
photon or radiation. It is measured in cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz), and is
customarily symbolized by the Greek lower-case letter nu (ν).

Wavelength – The distance traveled by a photon in the time it takes to complete a single
alternation in energy states is termed the wavelength of the radiation or photon. It is
commonly measured in nanometers (nm) or microns (μ), and is customarily symbolized by
the lower-case Greek letter lambda (λ). For atmospheric studies, wavelength is more useful
than frequency, and we will use that measure unless there is specific reason to do
otherwise.
Equivalence – The frequency and wavelength of a photon are related to the speed of light
Energy Levels – The energy content of each photon is directly and rigorously related to its
frequency and wavelength.

Quantum Constraints – The essence of quantum thermodynamics is that the photons

emitted by a substance or absorbed by it may not have an infinitude of values. Each
chemical (H2O, CO2, O3, etc.) has a set of wavelengths at which it may both absorb and emit
photons. This set (the spectrum of that substance) may be quite large, but it is not infinite.
That substance may not absorb or emit photons of any other wavelength. This characteristic
of matter is the foundation of spectrographic analysis. By examining the wavelengths that a
substance emits or absorbs, we may ascertain its chemical composition.

Heat Radiation and Light Radiation – Since few substances are uniform in either molecular
“temperatures” or chemical composition, most large real substances like the Earth and its
atmosphere emit radiation over a wide range of wavelengths. Generally speaking, the higher
the temperature of a substance the shorter the mean wavelength of emissions. At
temperatures below 2000 °K, virtually all emissivity is in the thermal infrared range. At
higher temperatures, some visible light may be emitted, but the bulk of the radiation is still
in the infrared range. It is not until you get to temperatures on the order of the Sun’s (6100
°K) that the bulk of radiation will be of light wavelength or shorter.

Solar Spectrum – The wavelength of maximum intensity for insolation is 475 nanometers.
This wavelength is toward the green end of the blue spectrum. However, the scattering of a
portion of the blue light by the intervening atmosphere allows us to perceive this as yellow
light. The various ranges of wavelength have been given specific names. It should be
stressed, however, that these divisions are arbitrary and man-made. They are not natural.
There is no change in character from one end of the electromagnetic spectrum to the other;
simply a change in wavelength, frequency, and energy.

Absorption of Insolation by the Atmosphere – When a photon of insolation is absorbed by a

molecule of the Earth’s atmosphere, it ceases to exist as a photon. The energy content of the
photon then goes to increase the kinetic energy of the atom or molecule that absorbed it.
An increase in the mean kinetic energy of a number of such atoms or molecules is
made manifest as an increase in temperature.

Selective Absorption – As you might imagine, the absorption of insolation is not equally
distributed over the solar spectrum. Atmospheric absorption is most pronounced in the
ultraviolet and infrared portions of the spectrum. Visible light passes through the clear
atmosphere without significant absorption.

Absorption of Ultraviolet and Hard Radiation – Very little ultraviolet radiation or hard
radiation reaches the surface of the Earth. It is almost all absorbed by ozone and to a lesser
degree— molecular oxygen. What little isn’t absorbed is scattered by the air molecules
themselves, with much of the radiation going back into space. What gets scattered toward
the Earth comes at us from all parts of the sky much as blue light does. Since ultraviolet
radiation is capable of penetrating to significant depths in water, clouds present only a slight
barrier. You can get a severe sunburn on a cloudy day.

Absorption of Infrared Radiation – Clouds and other aerosols absorb most of the thermal
infrared radiation that strikes their surfaces either from the Sun or from the Earth. Since the
mean global cloud cover is estimated at 62% of the Earth’s surface, this absorption is
significant. Obviously, thicker clouds absorb more than thinner ones.

Scattering of Insolation by the Atmosphere – If the photon of insolation escapes being

absorbed by the atmosphere, it must yet run the risk of being scattered. In scattering, the
path of the molecule is changed but nothing else. This is normally termed reflection, but this
term is somewhat misleading. It is extremely unlikely that a photon entering the Earth’s
atmosphere would change its direction only a single time on its way through the
atmosphere. Statistical mechanics tell us that the number of changes in path would be
extremely large. Consequently, there would be no preferred direction of onward movement
as there is in ordinary reflection. At any given moment, the photon is as likely to go down as
up, right as left, forward as back. This scattering is accomplished by the air molecules
themselves, by clouds, and by other aerosols. Recent studies put the attenuation of
insolation by scattering at 22.5% of the insolation received at the outside of the atmosphere.

Selective Scattering – Most of the scattering by air molecules themselves takes place within
the ultraviolet portion of the solar spectrum. In addition, there is some molecular scattering
at the blue end of the visible spectrum. It is this scattering that gives the clear sky its blue
color. Molecular scattering is achieved by a mathematical relationship between molecular
“size” and photon wavelength.

Non-Selective Scattering – Visible light is scattered by cloud droplets and crystals. Because
this scattering of visible light is relatively unselective, the clouds appear white (all
wavelengths). There is some scattering of infrared by clouds and other aerosols, as well. This
type of non-selective scattering is not influenced by particulate size. The greater the
thickness of atmosphere that the insolation passes through, the greater is
the scattering. Near sunrise or sunset, when the insolation passes through the greatest
thickness of air, almost all of the blue has been scattered away, leaving a red sky. This effect
may be magnified by the presence of dust or clouds whose particles are large enough to
scatter red light.

Transmission of Insolation by the Atmosphere – Photons that are neither absorbed when
they encounter the atmosphere nor scattered by the encounter simply pass on through the
matter involved without any change at all (photons are, after all, massless). This latter
process is termed transmission, and accounts for the remaining 52.7% of the insolation
received at the outside of the atmosphere. This is the insolation that reaches the surface of
the Earth without being intercepted. Needless to say, transmission stops at the Earth’s
surface; and the insolation that gets that far is either absorbed by the surface of the planet
or reflected back into space. Which of these two actions occurs in any give case is a function
of surface albedo. We will deal with the concept of albedo later.

Effects of atmospheric attenuation on global climate change – It should be obvious that

attenuation of insolation by the atmosphere has a significant effect on global climate. We
are not talking here about the blanketing or “greenhouse” effect of the atmosphere. That
will be dealt with in subsequent papers. Here, we are only concerned with how the
atmosphere keeps insolation from reaching the surface of the Earth.
The effect of attenuation is to reduce the amount of insolation reaching the surface. Any
increase in cloud cover will decrease incident visible and infrared radiation. Any increase in
ozone or (to a lesser degree) molecular oxygen will decrease somewhat the incidence of
ultraviolet radiation (this is, indisputably, a good thing). Any increase in water vapor will
decrease the amount of infrared. An increase in the levels of particulates will also decrease
incident insolation on the surface directly; and also indirectly by increasing cloud cover.
Carbon dioxide plays almost no role in the attenuation of insolation.

Recent trends – Cloud cover was thought to have been increasing over the northern
hemisphere from the industrial revolution onward. Significant “global dimming” was first
noted by Ohmura in 1989, this has been confirmed by subsequent studies (Stanhill & Cohen,
2001). However, there is some slim evidence that there has been a significant diminution in
recent years due to efforts to reduce pollution (particulates and industrial gases are a
significant initiating factor in cloud formation). If true, the most recent trend is toward
decreasing cloud cover. Further studies are obviously needed.

❖ Angle of Incidence of Insolation

Definition of angle of incidence – Imagine a line from the center of the solar disc to any
point on the Earth’s surface. Imagine a second line from that point to the true horizon along
the solar azimuth. Those two lines enclose the angle of incidence. When the sun is directly
overhead, the angle of incidence is 90°. When the solar disc is halved by the true horizon,
the technical angle of incidence is 0°, but the actual angle of incidence is greater than that
because of the Sun’s apparent diameter. The simpler center-of-the-solar-disc relationship
breaks down when any part of the solar disc is below the horizon, but a mean angle of
incidence may be calculated using simple trigonometry. When the entire solar disc is below
the visible horizon, there is no angle of incidence for the point on the surface under
consideration.

Insolation intensity and the angle of incidence – The relationship between insolation
intensity and angle of incidence approximates very closely a sine function.

Obliquity of the Earth’s axis – The elliptical orbit of the earth around the sun defines a
geometric plane the plane of the ecliptic. The Earth’s axis of rotation is not perpendicular to
that plane. Instead, it is tilted some 23°26’18.61” away from the perpendicular in the current
year 2006.

Variations in the obliquity – This tilt varies over time with various wobbles in the earth’s
axis.
This tilt is diminishing at the present time as part of a 41,000-year cycle in which it varies
between 22.1° and 24.5° from the perpendicular.
Obliquity and climate change – Although this variation has no effect on the annual heat
budget (the solar constant remains the same), it has a very marked effect on the local heat
budgets by affecting the seasonality. If the Earth’s axis were perpendicular to its plane of
revolution, there would be no seasons at all. The greater the tilt, the greater the
temperature difference between summer and winter in the extra-tropical portions of the
globe. This 41,000-year cycle is one of the three cycles upon which the Milankovich
Hypothesis is based.
Effects of curvature on the angle of incidence – Picture the Earth’s surface as a sphere. The
amount of insolation received per square meter in any given second will vary from place to
place over the surface of that sphere (it’s obviously zero on the night side). These variations
are primarily a function of latitude and longitude and how these two parameters affect the

angle of incidence of
solar radiation. Determining the amount of this variation is a simple exercise in spherical
trigonometry. In addition, the amount of insolation received by any particular square meter
will vary from time to time. Most of these variations are systematic and may be calculated.
The two simplest of these periodic variations are the period of rotation of the Earth (one
day or 86,400 seconds), and the period of revolution around the Sun (364.2424 days or one
vernal equinox year).

Controls on the angle of incidence – The angle at which the Sun’s rays strike any particular
area of the Earth’s spherical surface are a trigonometric function of five factors:
1. Latitude
2. Longitude
3. Time of day (solar, not clock)
4. Time of year (vernal equinox year)
5. Obliquity of the Earth’s axis

LESSON II
The Earth Atmosphere and General Circulation

The Different Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on its temperature. These layers are
the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere. A further
region, beginning about 500 km above the Earth's surface, is called the exosphere.

➢The Troposphere
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most of our
weather clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder
as the distance above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometer. The actual
change of temperature with height varies from day to day, depending on the weather.
The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all
of the water vapor (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in temperature with
height is a result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves upwards it
expands (because of the lower pressure). When air expands it cools. So air higher up
is cooler than air lower down. The lowest part of the troposphere is called the
boundary layer. This is where the air motion is determined by the properties of the
Earth's surface. Turbulence is generated as the wind blows over the Earth's surface,
and by thermals rising from the land as it is heated by the sun. This turbulence
redistributes heat and moisture within the boundary layer, as well as pollutants and
other constituents of the atmosphere. The top of the troposphere is called the
tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's
surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km) near the equator.

➢The Stratosphere
This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the
ozone in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of
absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in
the stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole.
By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us from
skin cancer and other health damage. However chemicals (called CFCs or freons, and
halons) which were once used in refrigerators, spray cans and fire extinguishers have
reduced the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, particularly at polar latitudes,
leading to the so-called "Antarctic ozone hole".

Now humans have stopped making most of the harmful CFCs we expect the ozone hole
will eventually recover over the 21st century, but this is a slow process.

➢The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the temperature
again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the "mesopause".

➢The Thermosphere and Ionosphere

The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which temperatures
again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of
energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun. The region of the atmosphere
above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere", since the energetic solar radiation
knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive
charge. The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and day and
between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and electrons which are present. The
ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave radio
broadcasts in New Zealand from other parts of the world

The Different Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on its temperature. These layers are
the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere. A further
region, beginning about 500 km above the Earth's surface, is called the exosphere.

➢The Troposphere
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most of our
weather clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder
as the distance above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometer. The actual
change of temperature with height varies from day to day, depending on the weather.
The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all
of the water vapor (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in temperature with
height is a result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves upwards it
expands (because of the lower pressure). When air expands it cools. So air higher up
is cooler than air lower down. The lowest part of the troposphere is called the
boundary layer. This is where the air motion is determined by the properties of the
Earth's surface. Turbulence is generated as the wind blows over the Earth's surface,
and by thermals rising from the land as it is heated by the sun. This turbulence
redistributes heat and moisture within the boundary layer, as well as pollutants and
other constituents of the atmosphere. The top of the troposphere is called the
tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's
surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km) near the equator.

➢The Stratosphere
This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the
ozone in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of
absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in
the stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole.
By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us from
skin cancer and other health damage. However chemicals (called CFCs or freons, and
halons) which were once used in refrigerators, spray cans and fire extinguishers have
reduced the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, particularly at polar latitudes,
leading to the so-called "Antarctic ozone hole".

Now humans have stopped making most of the harmful CFCs we expect the ozone hole
will eventually recover over the 21st century, but this is a slow process.

➢The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the temperature
again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the "mesopause".

➢The Thermosphere and Ionosphere

The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which temperatures
again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of
energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun. The region of the atmosphere
above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere", since the energetic solar radiation
knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions" with
a positive charge. The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and day
and between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and electrons which are present.
The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave
radio broadcasts in New Zealand from other parts of the world

The Exosphere
The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere. It contains mainly oxygen
and
hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely collide - they follow
"ballistic"
trajectories under the influence of gravity, and some of them escape right out into
space.

➢The Magnetosphere
The earth behaves like a huge magnet. It traps electrons (negative charge) and protons
(positive), concentrating them in two bands about 3,000 and 16,000 km above the
globe - the Van Allen "radiation" belts. This outer region surrounding the earth, where
charged particles spiral along the magnetic field lines, is called the magnetosphere.
The General Atmospheric Circulation
Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air and together with
ocean circulation is the means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface
of the Earth.

➢ Hadley cell
The ITCZ's band of clouds over the Eastern Pacific and the Americas as seen from
space. The atmospheric circulation pattern that George Hadley described was an
attempt to explain the trade winds. The Hadley cell is a closed circulation loop which
begins at the equator. There, moist air is warmed by the Earth's surface, decreases in
density and rises. A similar air mass rising on the other side of the equator forces
those rising air masses to move poleward. The rising air creates a low-pressure zone
near the equator. As the air moves poleward, it cools, becomes denser, and descends
at about the 30th parallel, creating a high-pressure area. The descended air then
travels toward the equator along the surface, replacing the air that rose from the
equatorial zone, closing the loop of the Hadley cell. The poleward movement of the
air in the upper part of the troposphere deviates toward the east, caused by the
coriolis acceleration (a manifestation of conservation of angular momentum).
At the ground level, however, the movement of the air toward the equator in the lower
troposphere deviates toward the west, producing a wind from the east. The winds that
flow to the west (from the east, easterly wind) at the ground level in the Hadley cell
are called the Trade Winds. Though the Hadley cell is described as located at the
equator, in the northern hemisphere it shifts to higher latitudes in June and July and
toward lower latitudes in December and January, which is the result of the Sun's
heating of the surface. The zone where the greatest heating takes place is called the
"thermal equator". As the southern hemisphere summer is December to March,
the movement of the thermal equator to higher southern latitudes takes place then.
The Hadley system provides an example of a thermally direct circulation. The power
of the Hadley system, considered as a heat engine, is estimated at 200 terawatts.

➢ Ferrel cell
Part of the air rising at 60° latitude diverges at high altitude toward the poles and
creates the polar cell. The rest moves toward the equator where it collides at 30°
latitude with the highlevel air of the Hadley cell. There it subsides and strengthens the
high pressure ridges beneath. A large part of the energy that drives the Ferrel cell is
provided by the polar and Hadley cells circulating on either side and that drag the
Ferrel cell with it. The Ferrel cell, theorized by William Ferrel (1817–1891), is,
therefore, a secondary circulation feature, whose existence depends upon the Hadley
and polar cells on either side of it. It might be thought of as an eddy created by the
Hadley and polar cells. The air of the Ferrel cell that descends at 30° latitude returns
poleward at the ground level, and as it does so it deviates toward the east. In the upper
atmosphere of the Ferrel cell, the air moving toward the equator deviates toward the
west. Both of those deviations, as in the case of the Hadley and polar cells, are driven
by conservation of angular momentum. As a result, just as
the easterly Trade Winds are found below the Hadley cell, the Westerlies are found
beneath the Ferrel cell.

The Ferrel cell is weak, because it has neither a strong source of heat nor a strong
sink, so the airflow and temperatures within it are variable. For this reason, the mid-
latitudes are sometimes known as the "zone of mixing." The Hadley and polar cells
are truly closed loops, the Ferrel cell is not, and the telling point is in the Westerlies,
which are more formally known as "the Prevailing Westerlies." The easterly Trade
Winds and the polar easterlies have nothing over which to prevail,
as their parent circulation cells are strong enough and face few obstacles either in the
form of massive terrain features or high-pressure zones. The weaker Westerlies of the
Ferrel cell, however, can be disrupted. The local passage of a cold front may change
that in a matter of minutes, and frequently does. As a result, at the surface, winds can
vary abruptly in direction. But the winds above the surface, where they are less
disrupted by terrain, are essentially westerly. A low-pressure zone at 60° latitude that
moves toward the equator, or a high-pressure zone at 30° latitude that moves
poleward, will accelerate the Westerlies of the Ferrel cell. A strong high, moving pole
wards may bring westerly winds for days.

➢Polar cell
The polar cell is a simple system with strong convection drivers. Though cool and dry
relative to equatorial air, the air masses at the 60th parallel are still sufficiently warm
and moist to undergo convection and drive a thermal loop. At the 60th parallel, the air
rises to the tropopause (about 8 km at this latitude) and moves poleward. As it does
so, the upper-level air mass deviates toward the east. When the air reaches the polar
areas, it has cooled by radiation to space and is considerably denser than the
underlying air. It descends, creating a cold, dry high-pressure area. At the polar
surface level, the mass of air is driven south toward the 60th parallel, replacing the air
that rose
there, and the polar circulation cell is complete. As the air at the surface moves
toward the equator, it deviates westwards. Again, the deviations of the air masses are
the result of the Coriolis effect. The air flows at the surface are called the polar
easterlies, flowing from northeast to southwest. The outflow of air mass from the cell
creates harmonic waves in the atmosphere known as Rossby waves. These ultra-long
waves determine the path of the polar jet stream, which travels within the transitional
zone between the tropopause and the Ferrel cell. By acting as a heat sink, the polar
cell moves the abundant heat from the equator toward the polar regions.
The Hadley cell and the polar cell are similar in that they are thermally direct; in other
words, they exist as a direct consequence of surface temperatures. Their thermal
characteristics drive the weather in their domain. The sheer volume of energy that the
Hadley cell transports, and the depth of the heat sink contained within the polar cell,
ensures that transient weather phenomena not only have negligible effect on the
systems as a whole, but except under unusual circumstances they do not form. The
endless chain of passing highs and lows which is part of everyday life for mid-latitude
dwellers, under the Ferrel cell at latitudes between 30 and 60° latitude, is unknown
above the 60th and below the 30th parallels. There are some notable exceptions to this
rule; over Europe, unstable weather extends to at least the 70th parallel north.
The polar cell, terrain, and Katabatic winds in Antarctica can create very cold
conditions at the surface, for instance the lowest temperature recorded on Earth: −89.2
°C at Vostok Station in Antarctica, measured 1983.

➢ Walker circulation
The Pacific cell is of such importance that it has been named the Walker circulation
after Sir Gilbert Walker, an early-20th-century director of British observatories in
India, who sought a means of predicting when the monsoon winds of India would fail.
While he was never successful in doing so, his work led him to the discovery of a link
between the periodic pressure variations in the Indian Ocean, and those between the
eastern and western Pacific, which he termed the "Southern Oscillation". The
movement of air in the Walker circulation affects the loops on either
side. Under normal circumstances, the weather behaves as expected. But every few
years, the winters become unusually warm or unusually cold, or the frequency of
hurricanes increases or decreases, and the pattern sets in for an indeterminate period.
The Walker Cell plays a key role in this and in the El Niño phenomenon. If
convective activity slows in the Western Pacific for some reason (this reason is not
currently known), the climates of areas adjacent to the Western Pacific are affected.
First, the upper-level westerly winds fail. This cuts off the source of returning, cool
air that would normally subside at about 30° south latitude, and therefore the air
returning as surface easterlies ceases. There are two consequences. Warm water
ceases to surge into the eastern Pacific from the west (it was "piled" by past easterly
winds) since there is no longer a surface wind to push it into the area of the west
Pacific. This and the corresponding effects of the Southern Oscillation result in long-
term unseasonable temperatures and precipitation patterns in North and South
America, Australia, and Southeast Africa, and the disruption of ocean currents.

➢El Niño – Southern Oscillation

El Niño and La Niña are opposite surface temperature anomalies of the Southern
Pacific, which heavily influence the weather on a large scale. In the case of El Niño,
warm surface water approaches the coasts of South America which results in blocking
the upwelling of nutrient-rich deep water. This has serious impacts on the fish
populations. In the La Niña case, the convective cell over the western Pacific
strengthens inordinately, resulting in colder than normal winters in North America
and a more robust cyclone season in South-East Asia and Eastern Australia. There is
also an increased upwelling of deep cold ocean waters and more intense uprising of
surface air near South America, resulting in increasing numbers of drought
occurrences, although fishermen reap benefits from the more nutrient-filled eastern
Pacific waters.

LESSON III
Weather Elements and Weather Patterns

Weather

Weather is the state of the atmosphere, or the sequence of the states of the atmosphere
at any given time. It is the short-term variations of the atmosphere in terms of
temperature, pressure, wind, moisture, cloudiness, precipitation and visibility.
Weather is highly variable. It is constantly changing, sometimes from hour to hour
and at times from day to day. According to David I Blume stock :-“Weather is the
behavior of the lower atmosphere which effects the land and oceans and have an
influence of the organisms which live within them.” Weather is the mix of events that
happen each day in our atmosphere including temperature, rainfall and humidity.
Weather is not the same everywhere. Perhaps it is hot, dry and sunny today where you
live, but in other parts of the world it is cloudy, raining or even snowing. Every day,
weather events are recorded and predicted by meteorologists worldwide.

Climate
Climate (from Ancient Greek klima, meaning inclination) is commonly defined as
the weather averaged over a long period of time. The standard averaging period is 30
years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes
statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-today or year-to-year
variations. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate
in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather," or more rigorously, as
the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities
over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The
classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature,
precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical
description, of the climate system

❖Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate

Elements of weather and climate:
1. Temperature
6. Winds
2. Solar radiation
7. Cloudiness
3. Air pressure
8. Brightness of the Sun
4. Humidity
9. Storms
5. Precipitation
10. Visibility

Controls of weather and climate

1. Latitudes
5. Low- and high-pressure cells
2. Altitude
6. Winds and air masses
3. Land and water
7. Mountains barriers/Relief
4. Distance from land and water
8. Ocean currents
➢Climatic controls are those factors of the atmosphere that causes different
weathers and climates over the surface of the Earth.

• Temperature is the intensity that is, as to how hot or cold the atmosphere is,
how many degrees Celsius(centigrade) it is above or below freezing (0°C). It is a very
important factor in determining the weather, because it influences or controls other
elements of the weather, such as precipitation, humidity, clouds and atmospheric
pressure.

• Solar radiation is probably the most important element of climate. It heats the
Earth's surface which in turn determines the temperature of the air above.
The receipt of solar radiation drives evaporation, so long as there is water available.
Heating of the air determines its stability, which affects cloud development and
precipitation. Unequal heating of the Earth's surface creates pressure gradients that
result in wind. All the characteristics of climate can be traced back to the receipt of
solar radiation.

• Air pressure is the weight of air resting on the earth's surface and has specific
weight. This weight exerted by the air is atmospheric pressure.

• Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted against
a surface by the weight of air above that surface in the Earth's atmosphere. It is used
primarily by meteorologists to monitor developing storms that can seem to come
out of nowhere. While typically considered an aspect of weather, certain regions of
the world exist in zones where changing atmospheric pressures form a part of the
predictable climate. Because of their proximity to large bodies of water (a major
factor in atmospheric pressure changes), places like coastal regions and islands
experience severe storms on a regular basis.

• Humidity - Atmospheric moisture is the most important element of the

atmosphere which modifies the air temperature. Humidity is the measurable amount
of moisture in the air of the lower atmosphere. There are three types of humidity

▪Absolute humidity – is the total amount of water vapor present in per volume
of air at a definite temperature

▪Relative humidity is the ratio of the water vapors present in air having a
definite
volume at a specific temperature compared to the maximum water vapors that the air
is able to hold without condensing at that given temperature.

▪Specific humidity is defined as the mass of water vapor in grams contained in

a
kilogram of air and it represents the actual quantity of moisture present in a definite
air. The humidity element of weather makes the day feel hotter and can be used to
predict coming storms. The humidity element of climate is the prolonged moisture
level of an area that can affect entire ecosystems. For instance, tropical jungles can
sustain different forms of life than dry, arid climates because of the overall humidity
from rainfall and other factors. This is an aspect of climate rather than weather, in that
the typically high humidity levels of these regions is predictable over periods of
decades.

• Precipitation is the term given to moisture that falls from the air to the ground.
It includes snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog, mist and rain. Precipitation is simply any
water form that falls to the Earth from overhead cloud formations. As an element of
weather, precipitation determines whether outdoor activities are suitable or if the
water levels of creeks and rivers will rise. As an element of climate, precipitation is a
long-term, predictable factor of a region's makeup. For instance, a desert may
experience a storm (weather) though it remains a typically dry area (climate).

• Winds is the horizontal movement of the atmosphere. Wind can be felt only when
it is in motion. It is the result of the horizontal differences in the air pressure. It is
simply the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure. The speed of the wind
is determined by the difference between the high and low pressure.
The greater the difference the faster the wind speed. Closer the isobars stronger the
winds. The wind brings with it the temperature of the area it is coming from, therefore
a high pressure in a warm region will make the temperature in the low pressure area
higher. Wind-chill is the effect of the wind making it feel colder than it is actually. As
the wind speed increases air is moving more quickly and therefore removes warm air
therefore making it seem colder than the actual temperature.

• Cloudiness - Clouds are suspended water in the atmosphere and are usually the
most obvious feature of the sky. It give us a clue about what is going on in our
atmosphere and how the weather might change in the hours or even days to come.
Each type of cloud forms in a different way, and each brings its own kind of weather.
Clouds play multiple critical roles in the climate system. In particular, being bright
objects in the visible part of the solar spectrum, they efficiently reflect light to space
and thus contribute to the cooling of the planet. Clouds are the base for precipitation.
In summer cloudy days provide protection from the rays of the sun. In winter cloudy
skies at night diminish nocturnal radiation and check the fall of temperature. Clear
calm winter nights are usually the coldest and helps in condensation. The amount of
could controls the duration of sunshine, the brightness of the sky and the amount of
diffused day-light.

• Brightness of the Sun - The amount of sunshine at a certain place can

influence its temperature. It can be measured in sunshine hours. That is worked out by
the number of hours of daylight and how many of these are cloud free. Sunshine is
variable due to daylight hours as during the night there is no sunshine as the Earth is
pointing away from the sun at the given spot. Also due to the Earth's tilt some times
of the year have more sunshine (summer) and some less (rainy season).

• Storms - Tornadoes, hail storms and fog are all examples of meteorological
phenomena that are hard to predict. As an element of weather, these occurrences can
seem random and are a result of a set of unique circumstances. However, some
regions of the world can factor meteorological phenomena into their climate. For
instance, the American Midwest's "Tornado Alley" (tornadoes), the Great Lakes
region (lake effect snow), and places like London (fog) and Bangladesh (drastic and
rapid climate changes) have these occurrences so often that they are an almost
predictable part of the region's climate.
• Visibility it is the most critical weather element. Critical obstructions to visibility
include clouds, fog, smoke, haze, and precipitation. Visibility is often reduced
somewhat by air pollution and high humidity. Various weather stations report this as
haze (dry) or mist (moist). Fog and smoke can reduce visibility to near zero, making
driving extremely dangerous. The same can happen in a sandstorm in and near
desert areas, or with forest fires. Heavy rain (such as from a thunderstorm) not only
causes low visibility, but the inability to brake quickly due to hydroplaning.

➢Climatic controls are those factors of the atmosphere that causes different
weathers and climates over the surface of the Earth.

• Latitude is the distance of a location from the equator. The hottest temperatures
on Earth are found near the equator. This is because the sun shines directly on it for
more hours during the year than anywhere else. As you move further away from the
equator towards the poles, less sun is received during the year and the temperature
become colder. It is the angular measurement in degrees of the distance from the
equator to any location on the Earth. Depending on the latitude of a location
determines the amount of sunlight that a location receives. The higher your latitude
the less sunlight you will receive throughout the year, and the cooler will be your
climate. Locations near the equator receive vast amounts of sunlight throughout the
year, and as a result are warm year-round. Locations near the poles get very little
sunlight and as a result are cool year-round. There is great imbalance between
latitude and heat balance.

• Altitude is the difference in the vertical height of the atmosphere. It is the height
you are above sea level. It controls temperature and pressure density. The higher up
you are the lower the temperature will be. The temperature decreases with altitude and
this temperature phenomena is known as the Lapse Rate. This is because air that is
higher altitudes is less dense than it is at lower altitudes and air temperature depends
on its density. The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per km. The rate of decrease of pressure
with altitude is not constant. The rate of decrease is about .34 millibars for 300 meters
of altitude. Different types of clouds are found at different altitudes which controls
different types of precipitation. Jet streams are located at high altitudes and these
fast-moving rivers of air controls extreme and sever weather conditions.

• Land and water - The distribution of water and land across the surface of the
Earth is another important control that regulates climate. Water responds to
temperature change much more slowly than does land. It takes longer to heat water,
and longer for it to cool down. As a result, locations near the oceans experience
milder changes in climate than location near the land. Variations in air temperature
are much greater over land than over water. It is the differential heating of land and
water that effects for the distinct types of marine and continental types of climates.

• Distance from land and water - Sea temperature changes slower than
land temperature. If the temperature on land drops, then the area next to the sea will
be kept warmer for longer than areas inland. Islands have a less dramatic climate than
continents. Continents have extreme weather conditions. Areas located near the water
bodies will have mild climates and the areas located in the interior of the continent
will have sever climatic conditions. Different seas have different temperatures
therefore allowing one side of an island to be having different temperatures than the
other side.

• Low- and high-pressure cells - Pressure systems have a direct impact on

the precipitation characteristics of different climate regions. In general, places
dominated by low pressure tend to be moist while those dominated by high pressure
are dry. The seasonal changes of precipitation is affected by the seasonal movement
of global and regional pressure systems. Climates located at 10o to 15o of latitude
experience a significant wet period when dominated by the Inter-tropical
Convergence Zone and a dry period when the Subtropical High moves into this
region. The climate of Asia is controlled by the annual fluctuation of wind direction
due to the monsoon. Pressure dominance also affects the receipt of solar radiation.
Places dominated by high pressure tend to lack cloud cover and hence receive
significant amounts of sunshine, especially in the low latitudes.

• Winds and air masses - Air masses as a control of climate subsumes the
characteristics of temperature, humidity, and stability. The location relative to source
regions of air masses in part determines the variation of the day-to-day weather and
long-term climate of a place. For instance, the stormy climate of the mid-latitudes is a
product of lying in the boundary zone of greatly contrasting air masses called the
polar front. The movements of air masses often result in moderate to drastic
temperature changes, precipitation, thunderstorms, and sometimes tornado activity. If
the air masses contrast greatly it can result in thunderstorms, and possible formation
of tornadoes. All this activity is common where the tropics and arctic air masses meet.
In the subtropical high pressure belt there is a of convergence of both polar and
tropical winds.
• Mountains barriers/Relief - Topography affects climate in a variety of
ways. The orientation of mountains to the prevailing wind affects precipitation.
Windward slopes, those facing into the wind, experience more precipitation due to
orographic uplift of the air. Leeward sides of mountains are in the rain shadow and
thus receive less precipitation. Air temperatures are affected by slope and orientation
as slopes facing into the Sun will be warmer than those facing away. Temperature
also decreases as one moves toward higher elevations. Mountains have nearly the
same effect as latitude does on climate. It often act as barriers, diverting wind and
moisture, effecting the climate in the areas around it. The side of a mountain facing
the wind will have a climate very different from that of the other side of the mountain.
Often mountains create a vast shadow, where rain can seldom fall. With rainfall being
blocked by vast mountain ranges, these areas become deserts.

• Ocean currents greatly affect the temperature and precipitation of a climate.

Those climates bordering cold currents tend to be drier as the cold ocean water helps
stabilize the air and do not favor cloud formation and precipitation. Air traveling over
cold ocean currents lose energy to the water and thus moderate the temperature of
nearby coastal locations. Air masses traveling over warm ocean currents promote
instability and precipitation. The warm ocean currents raise the temperature of the
nearby coastal regions slightly above the mean values during the winter season. E.g.
the effect of the North Atlantic Drift on the northwestern coastal areas of Europe. The
cold ocean currents lower down the temperatures of the adjacent coastal areas. The
effect of cold currents is more pronounced in the and in the temperate regions during
the summer season. Currents are driven by the prevailing winds passing over the
surface of the ocean. Therefore, winds blowing from tropical areas bring warm
currents and vice versa.

The Philippine Climate

The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime. It is characterized by
relatively high temperature, high humidity and abundant rainfall. It is similar in many
respects to the climate of the countries of Central America. Temperature, humidity,
and rainfall, which are discussed hereunder, are the most important elements of the
country's weather and climate.

Temperature - Based on the average of all weather stations in the Philippines,

excluding Baguio, the mean annual temperature is 26.6o C. The coolest months fall in
January with a mean temperature of 25.5oC while the warmest month occurs in May
with a mean temperature of 28.3oC. Latitude is an insignificant factor in the variation
of temperature while altitude shows greater contrast in temperature. Thus, the mean
annual temperature of Baguio with an elevation of 1,500 meters is 18.3oC. This makes
the temperature of Baguio comparable with those in the temperate climate and
because of this, it is known as the summer capital of the Philippines. The difference
between the mean annual temperature of the southernmost station in Zamboanga and
that of the northern most station in Laoag is insignificant. In other words, there is
essentially no difference in the mean annual temperature of places in Luzon, Visayas
or Mindanao measured at or near sea level.
Humidity refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere. Due to high
temperature and the surrounding bodies of water, the Philippines has a high relative
humidity. The average monthly relative humidity varies between 71 percent in March
and 85 percent in September. The combination of warm temperature and high relative
and absolute humidity give rise to high sensible temperature throughout the
archipelago. It is especially uncomfortable during March to May, when temperature
and humidity attain their maximum levels.

Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the Philippines. Rainfall

distribution throughout the country varies from one region to another, depending upon
the direction of the moisturebearing winds and the location of the mountain systems.
The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064 millimeters
annually. Baguio City, eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao receive the greatest amount
of rainfall while the southern portion of Cotabato receives the least amount of rain. At
General Santos City in Cotabato, the average annual rainfall is only 978 millimeters.

The Seasons - Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the country
can be divided into two major seasons:

(1) the rainy season, from June to November; and

(2) the dry season, from December to May
The dry season may be subdivided further into (a) the cool dry season, from
December to February;
and (b) the hot dry season, from March to May.

Climate Types - based on the distribution of rainfall, four climate types are
recognized, which are described as follows:
➢Type 1- Dry season from December to May and wet season from June to
November. During the months of June to September rain periods is at maximum.
Places that have this type of climate are exposed to southwest monsoon.
➢Type 2 - No dry season occurs from December to January. Places that have this
Type are exposed to North East Monsoon. Tropical Cyclone are frequent in these
areas.
➢Type 3 - Seasons not very pronounced relatively dry. For 6 months, places
experiencing this type of climate are located inland. Southwest monsoon greatly
affects these areas.
➢Type 4 - Rainfall is more or less evenly throughout the year. North East Luzon,
Southern part of Luzon, Southern Mindanao, and few areas in Visayas experience this
type of climate.

Typhoons have a great influence on the climate and weather conditions of the
Philippines. A great portion of the rainfall, humidity and cloudiness are due to the
influence of typhoons. They generally originate in the region of the Marianas and
Caroline Islands of the Pacific Ocean which have the same latitudinal location as
Mindanao. Their movements follow a northwesterly direction, sparing Mindanao
from being directly hit by majority of the typhoons that cross the country. This
makes the southern Philippines very desirable for agriculture and industrial
development.

LESSON IV
Hydrologic Cycle and the Hydrologic Processes

The Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the
ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds.
Moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface as precipitation.
Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may occur; 1) some of the
water may evaporate back into the atmosphere or 2) the water may penetrate the
surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either seeps its way to into the oceans,
rivers, and streams, or is released back into the atmosphere through transpiration. The
balance of water that remains on the earth's surface is runoff, which empties into
lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the oceans, where the cycle begins
again. Lake effect snowfall is good example of the hydrologic cycle at work. The
cycle begins as cold winds (horizontal blue arrows) blow across a large lake, a
phenomena that occurs frequently in the late fall and winter months around the Great
Lakes. Evaporation of warm surface water increases the amount of moisture in the
colder, drier air flowing immediately above the lake surface. With continued
evaporation, water vapor in the cold air condenses to form ice-crystal clouds, which
are transported toward shore. By the time these clouds reach the shoreline, they are
filled with snowflakes too large to remain suspended in the air and consequently, they
fall along the shoreline as precipitation. The intensity of lake effect snowfall can be
enhanced by additional lifting due to the topographical features (hills) along the
shoreline. Once the snow begins to melt, the water is either absorbed by
the ground and becomes groundwater, or goes returns back to the lake as runoff.
The Hydrologic Process
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water
evaporates as water vapor into the air. Some ice and snow sublimates directly into
water vapor. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from
the soil. The water molecule H2O has smaller molecular mass than the major
components of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen, N2 and 2, hence is less dense.
Due to the significant difference in density, buoyancy drives humid air higher. As
altitude increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops. The lower
temperature causes water vapor to condense into tiny liquid water droplets which are
heavier than the air, and fall unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of
these droplets over a large space up in the atmosphere become visible as cloud. Some
condensation is near ground level, and called fog. Atmospheric circulation moves
water vapor around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper
atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and
can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands
of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water
flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in
the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water
emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all
runoff flows into rivers; much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water
infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater
for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep
back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some
groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs.
In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between
surface water and ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to
the ocean, to continue the water cycle.

Different Processes Lead to Movements and Phase Changes

in Water
Precipitation - Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most
precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.
Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year,
398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans. The rain on land contains 107,000
km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water per year and a snowing only 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi).[3]
78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean.

Canopy interception - The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage

eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.

Snowmelt - The runoff produced by melting snow.

Runoff - The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes
both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the
ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for
agricultural or other human uses.

Infiltration - The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once
infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater. A recent global study
using water stable isotopes, however, shows that not all soil moisture is equally
available for groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration.
Subsurface flow - The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and
aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being
pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower
elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced
pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly and is replenished slowly, so it can
remain in aquifers for thousands of years.

Evaporation - The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation.

Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they
are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration
amounts to approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water, 434,000 km3
(104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans. 86% of global evaporation
occurs over the ocean.
Sublimation - The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water
vapor by passing the liquid state.
Deposition - This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.
Advection - The movement of water through the atmosphere. Without advection,
water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land.
Condensation - The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the
air, creating clouds and fog.
Transpiration - The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air.
Percolation - Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the
influence of gravity. Plate tectonics - Water enters the mantle via subduction of
oceanic crust. Water returns to the surface via volcanism.