II.
Network Protocols and
Communication
Rules of Communication
Computer networks use rules for A network can be as complex as devices
communications, similar to rules used in connected across the Internet, or as simple as
human communications. In order for two two computers directly connected to one
devices to communicate they must use another with a single cable, and anything in
the same rules. between.
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Communication
Fundamentals
All communication methods have four elements in common.
◇ Source or sender - Message sources are people, or electronic devices, that
need to send a message to other individuals or devices.
◇ Destination or receiver-Destination receives the message and interprets it.
◇ Channel or media-channel, consists of the media that provides the pathway
over which the message travels from source to destination.
◇ Protocol-The sending of this message, whether by face-to-face
communication or over a network, is governed by rules called protocols.
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Human Communication Elements
FIGURE 1
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Computer Communications
FIGURE 2
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Before communicating with one another, individuals
must use established rules or agreements to govern the
conversation.
“
▪ An identified sender and receiver
▪ Common language and grammar
▪ Speed and timing of delivery
▪ Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements
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II. Protocols used in network communications also
define
“
▪ Message encoding
▪ Message delivery options
▪ Message Formatting and Encapsulation
▪ Message Timing
▪ Message Size
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Message Encoding
Encoding is the process of converting information into another
acceptable form for transmission. Decoding reverses this process in
order to interpret the information
Encoding between Each bit is encoded into The destination host
hosts must be in an a pattern of sounds, light receives and decodes
appropriate format for waves, or electrical the signals in order to
the medium. Messages impulses depending on interpret the message.
sent across the network the network media over
are first converted into which the bits are
bits by the sending transmitted.
host.
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Message Delivery Options
▪ Unicast
A one-to-one delivery option wherein there is only a single destination for
the message.
▪ Multicast
When a host needs to send messages using a one-to-many delivery option.
Multicasting is the delivery of the same message to a group of host
destinations simultaneously.
▪ Broadcast
If all hosts on the network need to receive the message at the same time, a
broadcast may be used. Broadcasting represents a one-to-all message
delivery option.
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Message Formatting and
Encapsulation
When a message is sent from Letter writing is one of the most There is an agreed format for
source to destination, it must use a common forms of written human letters and addressing letters
specific format or structure. communication which can be which is required for proper
Message formats depend on the compared to networks. delivery.
type of message and the channel
that is used to deliver the message
The process of placing one Each computer message is A frame acts like an envelope
message format (the letter) inside encapsulated in a specific providing destination address
another message format (the format, called a frame, before and source address.
envelope) is called encapsulation. it is sent over the network.
On the other hand, encapsulation
occurs when the process is
reversed by the recipient and the
letter is removed from the
envelope.
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Message Timing
▪ Access Method
Hosts on a network need to know when to begin sending messages and how
to respond when collisions occur.
▪ Flow Control
Source and destination hosts use flow control to negotiate correct timing to
avoid overwhelming the destination and ensure information is received.
▪ Response Timeout
Hosts on the network have rules that specify how long to wait for responses
and what action to take if a response timeout occurs.
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Message Size
Imagine what it would be like to read this course if it all appeared as one
long sentence; it would not be easy to read and comprehend.
▪ Humans break long messages into smaller
▪ Long messages must also be broken into smaller pieces to
travel across a network.
o Each piece is sent in a separate frame.
o Each frame has its own addressing information.
o A receiving host will reconstruct multiple frames into the original
message
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III. Networks Protocol and
Standards
Rules that Govern Communications
▪ Protocol suites are implemented by hosts and networking devices in software,
hardware or both.
▪ The protocols are viewed in terms of layers, with each higher level service
depending on the functionality defined by the protocols shown in the lower levels.
Network Protocols
▪ Networking protocols define a common format and set of rules for exchanging
messages between devices.
▪ Some common networking protocols are Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and Internet Protocol (IP).
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Network Protocols
FIGURE 3
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Networks Protocol
Communication between a web server and web client is an example of an
interaction between several protocols:
• HTTP - an application protocol that governs the way a web server and a web
client interact.
• TCP - transport protocol that manages the individual conversations.
• IP – encapsulates the TCP segments into packets, assigns addresses, and
delivers to the destination host.
• Ethernet - allows communication over a data link and the physical transmission
of data on the network media.
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IV. TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard, meaning these
protocols are freely available to the public, and any vendor is able to
implement these protocols on their hardware or in their software.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
FIGURE 4
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TCP/IP Protocol Process
▪ When sending data from a web server to a client the encapsulation procedure
would be as follows:
▪ The webserver prepares the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) page. The
HTTP application layer protocol sends the data to the transport layer.
▪ The transport layer breaks the data into segments and identifies each
▪ Next the IP source and destination addresses are added, creating an IP Packet.
▪ The Ethernet information is then added creating the Ethernet Frame, or data link
frame.
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TCP/IP Protocol Process
▪ This frame is delivered to the nearest router along the path towards the web
client. Each router adds new data link information before forwarding the packet.
▪ When receiving the data link frames from the web server, the client processes
and removes each protocol header in the opposite order it was added:
▪ First the Ethernet header is removed Then the IP header
▪ Then the Transport layer header
▪ Finally the HTTP information is processed and sent to the client’s web browser,
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Standard Organizations
Standard organizations create the standards that allow devices to
communicate independent of any specific vendor.
V. Open Standards
Open standards encourage interoperability, competition, and innovation. The following are
the I.T standards organization.
▪ Internet Society (ISOC) –promotes open development and evolution of Internet use
globally.
▪ Internet Architecture Board (IAB) - management and development of Internet
standards.
▪ Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) - develops, updates, and maintains Internet
and TCP/IP technologies.
▪ Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) - focused on long-term research related to
Internet and TCP/IP protocols.
▪ Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) -coordinates IP
address allocation and management of domain names.
▪ Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) - manages IP address allocation,
domain name management, and protocol identifiers for ICANN.
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1. Electronics and Standard Communication Org
▪ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) - dedicated to advancing
technological innovation and creating standards in a wide area of industries including
networking.
▪ Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) - standards related to electrical wiring, connectors,
and network racks.
▪ Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) - standards for radio equipment,
cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, and satellite communications.
▪ International Telecommunications Union - Telecommunication
▪ Standardization Sector (ITU-T) - standards for video compression, Internet
▪ Protocol Television (IPTV), and broadband communications.
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2. OSI Reference Model
▪ Application - contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
▪ Presentation - provides for common representation of the data.
▪ Session - provides services to the presentation layer to organize its dialogue and
to manage data exchange.
▪ Transport - defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data.
▪ Network - provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network
between identified end devices.
▪ Data Link - provides methods for exchanging data frames between devices over a
common media.
▪ Physical - describes the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural means to
transmit bits across physical connections.
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2. OSI Reference Model
▪ Application - contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
▪ Presentation - provides for common representation of the data.
▪ Session - provides services to the presentation layer to organize its dialogue and
to manage data exchange.
▪ Transport - defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data.
▪ Network - provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network
between identified end devices.
▪ Data Link - provides methods for exchanging data frames between devices over a
common media.
▪ Physical - describes the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural means to
transmit bits across physical connections.
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Email
Sent
Start
Port 587
IP - [Link]
Mac Address:
Cable
25 image credit: Chingu
3. TCP/IP Model
FIGURE 5
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VI. Data Encapsulation
To move through the network, data must be properly encapsulated with sufficient
control and addressing information to allow it to move from the sender to the receiver.
Message Segmentation
▪ Large streams of data are divided into smaller, more manageable pieces to send over
the network.
▪ By sending smaller pieces, many different conversations can be interleaved on the
network, called multiplexing.
▪ Each piece must be labeled.
▪ If part of the message fails to make it to the destination, only the missing pieces need to
be retransmitted.
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VI. Data Encapsulation
Protocol Data Units(PDU)
▪ As application data is passed down the protocol stack, information is added at each level.
This is known as the encapsulation process.
▪ The form that the data takes at each layer is known as a Protocol Data Unit (PDU).
o Data - application layer PDU
o Segment – Transport layer PDU
o Packet – Network layer PDU
o Frame – Data Link Layer PDU
o Bits – Physical Layer PDU
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VI. Data Encapsulation
Encapsulation Example
▪ The encapsulation process works from top to bottom:
o Data is divided into segments.
o The TCP segment is encapsulated in the IP Packet.
o The IP packet is encapsulated in the Ethernet Frame.
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3. Encapsulation
FIGURE 6
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3. Encapsulation
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De-encapsulation Example
▪ The de-encapsulation process works from bottom to top.
▪ De-encapsulation is the process used by a receiving device to remove one or more
of the protocol headers.
▪ The data is de-encapsulated as it moves up the stack toward the end-user
application.
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VII. Network Addresses
Network layer source and destination addresses - Responsible for delivering
the IP packet from the original source to the final destination.
o Source IP address - The IP address of the sending device, the original source
of the packet.
o Destination IP address - The IP address of the receiving device, the final
destination of the packet.
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VII. Network Addresses
FIGURE 7
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Data Link Addresses
▪ The purpose of the data link address is to deliver the data link frame from one
network interface to another network interface on the same network.
▪ As the IP packet travels from source to destination it is encapsulated in a new
data link frame when it is forwarded by each router.
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Devices on the Same
Network
▪ The network layer addresses, or IP addresses, indicate the original source
and final destination.
▪ Network portion – The left-most part of the address indicates which network the
IP address is a member of.
▪ Host portion – The remaining part of the address identifies a specific device on
the network.
▪ The data link frame which uses MAC addressing, is sent directly to the
receiving device.
▪ Source MAC address - address of sending device.
▪ Destination MAC address – address of receiving device.
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Devices on the Same
Network
FIGURE 8
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Devices on Remote
Network
▪ Sending to a remote network - the source and destination IP addresses
represent hosts on different networks.
▪ The data link frame cannot be sent directly to the remote destination host.
Therefore the frame is sent to the default gateway (nearest router interface)
▪ The router removes the received Layer 2 information and adds new data link
information before forwarding out the exit interface.
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Thanks!
References and Supplementary Materials
Breakthroughs in Telephone Technology: From Bell to
Smartphones, edited by Robert Curley, Britannica
Educational Publishing with Rosen Educational
Services, 2012, pp. 119-120. Computing and
Connecting in the 21st Century.
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