DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Short Note

This short note module contains three courses, these are

➢ Fundamental of Chemical Engineering
➢ Process industries
➢ Mechanical Unit operations

Prepared By:
Tilahun Gisila
Tsedale Tesfaye
Bedilu Belay

1
 Fundamental of Chemical Engineering
Chapter one
Principle of Chemical Engineering
❖ Chemical engineering is branch of engineering which is concerned with the production of
bulk material from basic raw material based on chemical and physical process in economical
way.
❖ Chemical engineering is also concerned with the production of desired product at right
time and minimum cost.
❖ What is the role of chemical engineer? Develop new product and process; Design and
manufacture useful products; Design plant and analyze overall plant costs; Protect and
improve the environment
Chapter Two

Concepts and Classification of Unit Operations and Processes

❖ A process is any operation or series of operations by which a particular objective is

accomplished.
❖ Any chemical process may be a combination of series of unit operations and unit
processes.
❖ Unit process involves principles of chemical conversions leading to synthesis of various
useful products. Example: Conversion Sugar to Ethanol.
❖ Unit operations involve a physical change or physical transformation such as separation,
crystallization, evaporation, filtration etc.
❖ In chemical engineering and related fields, a unit operation is a basic step in a process
industry.
❖ Large processes are broken into unit operations in order to make them easier to analyze.
❖ The key thing to remember about them is that the conservation laws apply not only to the
process as a whole but also to each individual unit operation

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 Classification of unit operations

• Mechanical unit operation: Unit operation which involves a specific job with physical
changes by using mechanical energy (Size reduction (crusher, miller, grinder, etc.);
Sedimentation; Centrifuge; Filtration; Mixing; Floatation; Magnetic separation)

• Thermal unit operation: Unit operations that carry out the transfer of heat from one
substance to other.

✓ Heat exchanger for example shell and tube HE, plate HE

✓ Boiler: to change the water into steam (to change liquid to vapor)
✓ Cooler: to remove heat (to decrease temperature)
✓ Condenser: to change vapor phase into liquid
✓ Evaporator: to concentrate the solution by removing the water content of solution.
✓ Chiller: it is also used to remove heat and bring temperature of substance below
room temperature.
✓ Heater: to increase temperature
• Mass transfer unit operations: Unit operations that are used to transfer material from
one component to another component. This unit operations are used as separation of solid,
liquid and gases which carry mass transfer.
✓ Drying: is a mass transfer unit operation that is used to remove moisture content
from wetted materials.
✓ Absorption: It is also known as the Gas liquid extraction and defined as the
separation of vapour solute in a gas mixture is absorbed by a liquid in which the
solute is more or less soluble. absorption is generally carried out to reduce the
concentration of the pollutants, toxic substance, etc. for example the absorption of
ammonia from an air ammonia mixture by water is the example of absorption
✓ Distillation: to separate liquid mixtures that have different boiling point
✓ Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Liquid liquid extraction is an operation where one or
more liquid particles are separated from the liquid mixture with the help of liquid
Solvent that's why it is also known as the Solvent Extraction. A solute in a liquid
solution is removed by contacting with another liquid solvent which is relatively
immiscible with solution.

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✓ Adsorption: It is the solid fluid mass transfer operation in adsorption the transfer of
solute takes place from the fluid to solid. purification of water by activated carbon or
charcoal, removal of mixture from air by using the silica gel is an example of
adsorption.
✓ Crystallization: It is the process where solids particles are formed by the liquid
solution. it comes under the solid liquid mass transfer operation. in crystallization,
the solution is concentrated and usually cooled until the solute concentration
becomes higher than its solubility at that temperature.
✓ Humidification and dehumidification: Adding the amount of water vapour into
atmosphere is called the humidification and removing the water vapours from the
atmosphere is called the dehumidification process it is a liquid vapour mass transfer
operation.

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 Chapter Three
Introduction to Units and Dimensions
❖ Dimension is measurement of something in one or more directions. It is a property that can
be measured, such as length, time, mass, temperature etc.
❖ Dimension is measurement of something in one or more directions.
❖ It is a property that can be measured, such as length, time, mass, temperature etc.
❖ Units are the means of expressing the dimensions
❖ SI system is the most commonly-used system of units in the world, and is based heavily on
units of 10.
Name zetta yotta exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deca
Symbol Y Z E P T G M K H da
Factor 1024 1021 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 101
Name deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto zepto yocto
Symbol d c m μ N p f a z y
Factor 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18 10-21 10-24

➢ A measured quantity can be expressed in terms of any units having the appropriate
dimension.

Unit of length and equivalent values Unit of mass equivalent values

1m =100 cm =1000 mm=106μm 1Kg =1000 g = 2.20462lbm=0.001metric
1m = 39.37 in.=3.2808 ft= 0.0006214 ton
mile 1 lbm = 16 oz = 0.453593 Kg = 453.593 g
1 in.=2.54cm 1 tone=1000 Kg
1 ft =12 in. = 0.3048m=30.48 cm
Unit of volume and equivalent values Unit of Pressure and equivalent values
1 m3=1000 L=106cm3=106mL 1 atm=1.01325x105N/m2(Pa)=101.325 kPa
=35.3145 ft3 = 264.17 gal = 35.3145 =1.01325 bar=1.01325x106
ft3 dynes/cm3
1ft3 =7.481 gal1728in3 =28.317 L =760mmHg @0oC(torr)
=14.696lbf/in2(psi) =29.92 inHg
Unit of force and equivalent values Unit of energy and equivalent values
1 N =1 Kg.m/s2 = 105 dynes =[Link]/s2 1J =1 N.m = 107 ergs =[Link]
= 0.22481 lbf = 2.778x10-7 KW.h = 0.23901 Cal
1 lbf = 32.174 lbm = 4.4482 N = 0.7376 [Link] = 9.486x10-4 Btu
1 Cal= 4.114J

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 Units of Power and equivalent unit
1 W=1J/s=0.23901 Cal/s=[Link]/s
=9.486x10-4Btu/s =1.341x10-3hp

Convert the following units

a) find the conversion factor of psi to pa
b) find the conversion factor of BTU/ft2hroF in to KJ/m2soK
c) convert 1poise to British engineering and SI unit
d) In biological systems, production rate of glucose is 0.6μg mol/(mL)(min). Determine the
production rate of glucose for this system in the units of lb mol/(ft3) (day).
1L=3.351*10-2 ft3

Dimensional Homogeneity
❖ The dimensions on both sides of the equals sign must be the same for an equation to be valid
or homogeneous.
❖ Every Valid equation must be dimensionally homogeneous (all additive terms on both side of
the equation must have the same dimensions).

Process and Process Variables

❖ The material that enters a process is referred to as the input or feed and the material which
leaves is called the output or product.
❖ Process Stream is a line that represents the movement of material to or from process units
❖ Process variables are variables which are used to give information about the process
streams.
❖ There are different process variables at different process streams (Mass and volume, Density,
Composition, Flow rate, Moles, Temperature, Pressure).
Mass Fraction and Mole Fraction
➢ Process streams may contain one or more substance but more often they consist of
mixtures of solids, liquids or gases.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝐾𝑔 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑔 𝐴 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐴
➢ Mass fraction: 𝑥𝐴 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝐾𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 or 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)
𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴 𝑙𝑏−𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴

➢ Mole fraction: 𝑦𝐴 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠(𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 or 𝑙𝑏−𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

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Common temperature scales are the following:
➢ Fahrenheit (°F) Freezing point of water is 32 and boiling point is 212.
➢ Celsius (°C) Freezing point of water is 0 and boiling point is 100.
➢ Rankin (°R) Absolute zero (when all kinetic energy vanishes)
➢ Kelvin (K). Absolute zero (when all kinetic energy vanishes)
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➢ o
𝐶 = 9(F-32) o
F=9/5(𝐶 + 32)
➢ T°R = T°F + 459.67 ToK = T°C + 273.15

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 Chapter Four
Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering
System and process classification
❖ A system is any portion of a process that can be enclosed within a system boundary.
❖ The system may be the entire process, a single process unit, a combination of process units,
or a point where two or more process streams come together or one stream splits in to
branches.
❖ The input and outputs to a system are the process streams that intersect the system
boundary.
❖ An open system is a system that freely exchanges energy and matter with its surroundings.
❖ In a closed system, the material neither enters nor leaves the vessel (system), and only
energy transfer takes place.
❖ An isolated system does not exchange energy or matter with surroundings. A thermos flask
is the best example of an isolated system.
❖ Based on how the process was designed to operate, process can be classified in to three.
✓ Continuous Process: It is a process that has the feed streams and product streams
moving in to and out of the process all the time or without interruption. Continuous
process commonly used for large production rate.
✓ Batch Process: The feed materials are placed into the system (reactor, mixer, filter etc.)
at the beginning of the process. These materials are held for a period of time known as
"residence time" or " retention period" during which the required physical and/or
chemical changes are occurred. The products are removed all at once after this time. No
masses crossed the system boundary during this time. Batch processes are commonly
used for small scale processes in which relatively small quantities of a product are to be
produced.
✓ Semi batch process: In this type, all quantity of one reactant is initially put in the
reactor, and then other reactants are continuously fed. Only flows enter the systems, and
no leave, hence the system is an unsteady state.
❖ Based on how the process variable varies with time, process can be classified in to two
✓ Steady state process can be defined as that process in which all the operating
conditions (temperature, pressures, compositions, flow rate etc.) remains constant
with time. In such process there is no accumulation in the system.

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 ✓ For an unsteady state (transient) process, not all of the operating conditions in
the process (e.g., temperature, pressure, compositions, flow rate etc.) remain
constant with time, and/or the flows in and out of the system can vary with time.
❖ Batch and semi-batch processes are unsteady state operations since the concentration within
the closed system is continuously changed with time.
❖ Continuous processes are usually runs as close as possible to the steady state by using
suitable control units. However, unsteady state (transient) conditions exist during the startup
of a process

Classify the following processes as Batch, Continuous, Semi batch, Steady state and
Transient process.

1. A balloon is filled with air at steady rate

2. A bottle of milk is taken from the refrigerator and left on the kitchen table
3. Water is boiled in an open flask
4. Carbon mono oxide and steam are feed into a tubular reactor at steady rate and react to form
carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Products and unused reactants are withdrawn at the other end.
The reactor contains air when the process starts up. The Temperature, composition and flow
rate of the entering reactant stream are also independent of time. Classify the process a)
Initially b) After a long period of time has elapsed.
Material Balance
❖ Material balance involves calculations the quantities of all materials that enter and leave any
system or process which are based on the principle of the "law of conversation of mass".

General material balance equation

➢ To apply material balance, you need to define the system and the quantities of interest
➢ A balance on a conserved quantity (total mass, mass of a particular species, energy
momentum) in a system (a single process unit, collection of units, or an entire process)
bay be written in the following general way.
Input + Generation – Output – Consumption = Accumulation

Material balance simplification

The following rules may be used to simplify the general material balance equation:

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 ➢ If the system is at steady state, set accumulation = 0
➢ If the balanced substance is a nonreactive set generation=0 and consumption=0.
➢ If the balanced quantity is total mass, set generation=0 and consumption=0 (law of
conservation of total mass).
Differential balance is a balance taken at a specific point time. It is generally applied to a
continuous process and written in terms of rate of change of the specified quantity with respect to
time.
Integral balance is a balance taken at two specific points in time.
Methods of solving material balance problems
1 Read the problems carefully and express, what the problem statement asks you to
determine.
2 Draw a sketch of the process and specify the system boundary and fully label a process
flow chart with all known and unknown process variables including its units.
3 Flow chart is a convenient way of organizing process information for a subsequent
calculation.
4 Label the flow of each stream and the associated compositions with symbols.
5 Write additional data required to solve the problem and the chemical equations if the
process involves chemical reaction.
6 Select a suitable basis of calculations.
7 List by symbols each of the unknown values of the stream flows and compositions
8 Make a number of independent material balances equations equal to unknown quantities to
be calculated. Three type of material balance equations can be formulated:
a) Equation for total quantities which is called (total material balance) or (over all
material balance).
b) Equation for each component which is called (component material balance). If
there is no chemical reaction the number of equations that can be written is equal
to the number of components in the system.
c) Equation for each element which is called (element material balance) if there is
a chemical reaction.
9. Check your answers by introducing them, or some of them, into the material balance
equations.

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To obtain maximum benefit from the flow chart in material balance calculations, one must
Write the values and units of all known stream variables at the locations of the streams on the
chart.
Assign algebraic symbols to unknown stream variables and write these variable names
Note on notation: use consistent notations for example, m (mass), m ̇ (mass flow rate), n
(moles), n ̇ (molar flow rate), V (volume), V ̇ (volumetric flow rate).
c) Choose a basis for calculation.
If a stream amount or flow rate is given in the problem statement, use this as the basis for
calculation.
✓ If stream amount or flow rates are unknown, assume one preferably a stream of
known composition.
✓ If mass fractions are known, choose the total mass or mass flow rate of the stream
(e.g.,100 kg or 100 kg/hr.) as the basis
✓ If mole fractions are known, choose the total number of moles or the molar flow
rate.
d) Select a system and draw its boundaries.
e) State your assumptions (steady state, ideal gas, etc.)
f) Solve the equations.
g) Check your answer
➢ Determine the number of unknowns and the number of equations that can be
written to relate to them.
➢ That is, does the number of equations equal to the number of unknowns?
➢ Degree of Freedom Analysis (DFA) provides a rapid means of determining if a
specific problem is solvable or not.
DF = Number of Unknowns – Number of independent equations
Independent Equations
❖ A set of equations are independent if you cannot drive one by adding, subtracting,
multiplying and dividing combinations of the others.
3x1 + 4x2= 0
x1 – 3x2=0 independent equations

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 3x1 + 4x2 = 0
6x1 + 8x2 =0 dependent equations

x+2y+z =1 x+2y+z=1
2y+4z=10 2x+y-z=2
y+2z=5 y+2z=5
Source of equations
✓ Material Balance
✓ Physical properties and laws
✓ Process specifications
✓ Physical constraints
✓ Stoichiometric relations
✓ Energy balance

Exercise: Solve the following Problems

1. One thousand kilogram per hour of a mixture of benzene (B) and Toluene (T) containing
50% benzene by mass is separated by distillation in to two fractions. The mass flow rate of
benzene in the top stream is 450 kg B/h and that of toluene in the bottom is stream is
475kgT/h. The operation is at steady state. Write a mass balance to calculate the unknown
flow rates and compositions.
2. An aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide contains 20.0% NaOH by mass. It is desired to
produce an 8.0% NaOH solution by diluting a stream of the 20% solution with a stream of
pure water. Calculate the ratios (liters H2O/kg feed solution) and (kg product solution/kg
feed solution).
Material Balance on Recycle Bypass and Purge
Recycle: A fraction of a downstream outlets that returns to the material back to the process unit
Some of the reasons for using recycle in chemical processes are:

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 ➢ Recovering and reusing unconsumed reactants
➢ Recovery of catalysts
➢ Dilution of a process stream
➢ Circulation of working fluid and
➢ For no accumulation of mass
Bypass: A fraction of feed that is diverted around the process unit and combined with a
downstream outlet thus varying the composition and properties of the product.

Purge: A purge stream is a small stream blend off from a recycle loop to prevent build up of
inert or impurities in the system.

➢ The purge flow is so much smaller than the recycle flow that it can be neglected in the
steady state over all material balance of the process.

Makeup: A makeup stream is required to replace losses to leaks and carryover within the recycle
loop. Proper sizing and location of makeup and purge streams can prevent many problems with
process plants.

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Material Balance in Reactive Processes
Stoichiometry Basics
❖ Stoichiometry: theory of the proportions in which chemical species combine with one
another in a reaction
❖ Stoichiometric Equation: an equation that relates the relative number of molecules or
moles of reactants and products (but not mass!) that participate in a chemical reaction.
❖ Limiting reactant is the one that would run out if a reaction proceeded to completion
❖ A reactant is limiting if it is less than its stoichiometric proportion relative to every other
reactant.
❖ The theoretical requirement for an excess reactant is the amount required to react completely
with the limiting reactant.
❖ Percent conversion the fractional conversion of a reactant is the ratio of amount reacted to
amount fed.
❖ Chemical reactions do not occur instantaneously, but often proceed quite slowly. Therefore,
it is often not practical to design a reactor for complete conversion of the limiting reactant.
Instead, the reactant is separated from the reactor outlet stream and recycled back to the
reactor inlet.
❖ The fractional conversion of a reactant is the ratio of the amount reacted to the amount fed
❖ A material balance on a reactive substance does not have the simple form input = output, but
must include a generation and consumption term.
input– output + generation –consumption =Accumulation
Methods for solving mass balances with reactions
1 Using the extent of reaction
• Extents of reaction are convenient for chemical equilibrium problems and when equations
solving software is to be used.
2. Using balances on molecular species (e.g., N2, CH4, NO etc.)
• Molecular species balances require more complex calculations than either of the other two
approaches and should be used only for systems involving one reaction.
Input + generation = Output + Consumption
(Accumulation comp-1) = (input comp-1) – (output comp-1) + (generation comp-1) –
(consumption comp-1)

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3. Using balances of atomic species (e.g., N, C, H, N, O etc.)
• Atomic species balances generally lead to the most straight forward solution procedure,
especially when more than one reaction is involved.
Input = Output
Example: Balances on molecular species
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
If 100 kg of CH4 injected to the system;
✓ (Rate of consumption of CH4):
mCH4= nCH4 * MCH4
= 1kg-mole *16 kg/ kg-mole
=16 kg
✓ (Rate of consumption of O2):
• mO2=2 (mCH4/ MCH4) * M O2
=2 (16 kg/16 (kg-mole)) *32 kg/kg-mole
=64 kg
✓ (Rate of generation of CO2):
mCO2= (mCH4/ MCH4) * M CO2
= (16 kg/16 (kg-mole)) *44 kg/kg-mole
=44 kg
• (Rate of generation of H2O): mH2O=2 (mCH4/ MCH4)* M H2O =2 (16 kg/16 (kg-mole)) *18
kg/kg-mole
=36 kg
Atomic balance (steady state) Input = Output (WHY??)

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 Chapter 5
Introduction to Energy Balances
Forms of Energy
Systems are typically divided into three main categories depending on how the system interacts
with its surroundings:
• Isolated: No energy or mass transfer between system and surroundings, energy may change
from within the system
• Closed: Energy, but no mass transfer between system and surroundings
• Open: Energy and mass transfer between systems and surroundings, typically use a with
quantities that change over time in these open systems to denote the flow rate of energy or
mass.
Kinetic Energy (Ek) is energy associated with motion, which can be described as translational
or rotational energy.
Potential energy (Ep) can be described as energy present due to position in a field, such as
gravitational position or magnetic position
Internal energy (U) can be described as all other energy present in a system, including motion,
and molecular interaction.
Heat (Q)
• Heat is the energy flow due to temperature difference
• Heat flows from higher temperatures to lower temperatures
• Heat is generally defined as positive when it is transferred from the surroundings to the
system
Work (W)
Work is energy resulting from driving forces (not temperature) such as force, torque, or voltage
We will define work as positive when work is done by the surroundings on the system, this is
a typical convention. With this convention, we would write “Q + W” in our energy balances.
However, historically work has also been defined in physics as positive when work is done by
the system on the surroundings. In this other case, the energy balance would be written with “Q –
W”. Both can be used and this is accounted for in the sign we use in front of the work term in
energy balances.

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Energy Transfer in Closed Systems
Closed systems are defined as systems with no mass transfer across the system’s boundaries. All
the energy forms described above are applicable to closed systems.
Energy in closed systems follows the Law of Conservation of Energy
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
In terms of general energy:
𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚, 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚, 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
The initial energy in the system can be defined as:
𝑈𝑖 + 𝐸𝑘, 𝑖 + 𝐸𝑝, 𝑖
The final energy in the system can be defined as:
𝑈𝑓 + 𝐸𝑘, 𝑓 + 𝐸𝑝, 𝑓
The energy transfer of the system can be defined as:
𝑄+𝑊
This yields the following closed system energy balance, defined as
the First Law of Thermodynamics:
(𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖) + (𝐸𝑘, 𝑓 − 𝐸𝑘, 𝑖) + (𝐸𝑝, 𝑓 − 𝐸𝑝, 𝑖) = 𝑄 + 𝑊

𝛥𝑈 + 𝛥𝐸𝑘 + 𝛥𝐸𝑝 = 𝑄 + 𝑊

Assumptions made by the First Law of Thermodynamics

• If no acceleration exists in the system, the change in the kinetic energy term will be 0, and
can be omitted from the balance
• If no change in height (or other fields) exist in the system, the change in the potential
energy term will be 0, and can be omitted from the balance
• Internal energy depends on chemical composition, state (solid, liquid, or gas) and
temperature; Pressure’s effect is negligible.
• If the system has the same temperature as its surroundings or is adiabatic, the heat term
will be 0, and can be omitted from the balance
• If there are no moving parts, electrical currents, or radiation in the system, the work term
will be 0 and can be omitted from the balance
Work in Open Systems
Open Systems:

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Open systems are defined as systems where both mass and energy cross the system’s boundaries.
Two types of work are typically observed in these systems:

• Shaft Work – Ws or
Shaft work is work done on process fluid by a moving part, such as a pump, rotor, or a
stirrer.

• Flow Work – Wfl or

Flow work is work done on process fluid (inlet minus outlet). For the work flow in, the
surroundings do work on the system, therefore it is positive. For the work flow out, the
system does work on the surroundings, therefore it is negative.

Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance

Energy Conservation for a Steady-State System
For stream ‘j’ in a system:

Rearranging the energy terms, we get:

Reference
1. Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering David M.
Himmelblau & James B. Riggs.
2. Elementary principles of chemical processes, Rechard M. felder & Ronald [Link]
Site for testing your self
1. [Link]
reaction-iii-answers/
2. [Link]
biochemical-engineering/sample-questions-on-material-balance-with-chemical-
reaction/21058647
3. [Link]

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Process industries

1. Fundamentals of chemical industries

Industry means consists of enterprises and organizations that produce or supply goods and
services. Classifications of industries are:
Primary industries – those that extract or produce raw materials from which useful items can be
made.
Secondary industries - take the outputs of primary industries and convert them into consumer
and capital goods.
Tertiary industries -are those that provide essential services and support to allow other levels of
industry to function.
Process means series of actions that you take in order to achieve a result.
A chemical process: is a method or means of somehow changing one or more chemicals or
chemical compounds in to other chemical products.
The chemical process industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals and
other useful products with the help of different unit operations and unit processes.
Unit operations represent physical operation of an industrial plant and unit process is assigned
for operations that involve chemical action. There are different flow diagrams in chemical
process industry these are:
Block flow diagram (BFD) is a system, in which the principal parts or functions are
represented by blocks connected with lines that show the relationships of the blocks. It used to
simplify and understand the basic structure of a system.
A process flow diagram (PFD) is a diagram commonly used in chemical and process
engineering to indicate the general flow of plant processes and equipment. The PFD displays the
relationship between major equipment of a plant facility and does not show minor details such as
piping details and designations.
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (PID) a diagram which shows the interconnection of
process equipment and the instrumentation used to control the process. In the process industry, a
standard set of symbols is used to prepare drawings of processes. The instrument symbols used
in these drawings are generally based on instrumentation, systems, and automation society
standards.
2. Nitrogen industries

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Nitrogen cannot be absorbed directly by the plants and animals until it is converted into
compounds they can use. This process is called the Nitrogen Cycle. Forms of nitrogen are used
as fertilizers are Nitrate, Ammonia, Ammonium and Urea.
Chemical fertilizers are mainly inorganic and are manufactured materials but Manures are
organic fertilizers (made from plant and animal wastes). Chemical Fertilizers are manufactured
from Air, Fossil hydrocarbons (Natural gas, crude oil, fuel and coal, etc), Mineral rock
phosphates and Natural potassium salts (potash). Most of the fertilizers contain Nitrogen,
Phosphate and potash either singly or in a combination.
Nitrogen fertilizer contains raw materials (Urea, nitric acid, ammonia, ammonium nitrate and
ammonium sulphate).
Phosphate fertilizer contains raw materials (phosphoric acid, ammonium phosphate and
sulphuric acid).
Potash fertilizer contains raw materials (potassium chloride, potassium sulphate and potassium
nitrate).
Ammonia is produced basically from hydrocarbon, water/steam, air/N2 and energy. The
hydrogen and energy source is usually hydrocarbon. The other hydrogen and energy input
required is steam. The primary raw material or resources of hydrogen and energy are hydrogen
containing materials such as natural gas (NG) or petroleum or coal, water and biomass.
Ammonia production has three types of technologies which are Steam reforming (today mostly
available technology), Partial oxidation and Water Electrolysis. Basic unit operations in steam
reforming production of ammonia are:
(1) Feedstock desulphurization: to remove sulphur and sulphur compounds, Sulphur must be
removed as it can poison the reforming catalysts in downstream.
(2) Primary steam reforming the heated desulphurized natural gas and the steam then reacted
in the presence of a nickel or nickel-chromium catalyst.
(3) Secondary steam reforming to add the nitrogen required for the synthesis and to complete
the conversion of the hydrocarbon feed.
(4) Waste heat boiler outlet gas from the secondary reformer consists primarily of co2, co, H2,
and N2 and it is cooled immediately in waste heat boiler installed after secondary reformer.
(5) Shift conversion to convert CO formed in secondary reforming in to CO2 and H2. This
reaction is carried out in two steps with intermediate heat removal, high temperature shift

20
(HTS) and low temperature shift (LTS). A high temperature (hts) favors reaction velocity,
while low temperature (lts) favors product formations.
(6) Condensation process needed to prevent dilution of the Co2 removal solvent and to
maintain the correct equilibrium balance.
(7) Co2 removal after shift conversion and condensate removal, the process gas contains mostly
H2, N2, and Co2, so in this process removing unnecessary Co2.
(8) Methnation the small amounts of CO and CO2, remaining in the synthesis gas, can poison
the ammonia synthesis catalyst and must be removed usually by conversion to CH4 by
hydrogenation in the methanator.
(9) Drying Methane is not involved in the synthesis reaction, but the water formed must be
removed before entering the converter.
(10) Compression Modern ammonia plants use centrifugal compressors to pressurize the
synthesis gas to the required level (100 – 250 bar, 350 – 550 °c) for ammonia synthesis.
(11) Finally ammonia synthesis Purified synthesis gases are cooled and compressed, and then
they are passed over an iron catalyst in the ammonia converter to produce ammonia.
Applications of ammonia are about 80% of the ammonia is currently used as the nitrogen
fertilizers. 20% being used in several industrial applications, such as the manufacture of plastics,
fibres, explosives, hydrazine, amines, amides, nitriles and other organic nitrogen compounds
which serve as intermediates in dyes and pharmaceuticals manufacturing.

3. Nitric acid and sulfuric acid industries

The production technologies of nitric acid are first ammonia oxidation to nitrogen monoxide
[NO] second Nitrogen monoxide [NO] oxidation to nitrogen dioxide [NO2] and finally Nitrogen
dioxide [NO2] absorption by water. Main unit operations to process this acid are:
(1) Air filtration and compression Feed air contains, beside nitrogen and oxygen, some inert
gases, carbon monoxide and some dust and impurities. Dust and impurities harmfully affect the
platinum catalyst efficiency; therefore air must be filtered through a series of filters.
(2) Air Preheating in this step filtered air is introduced through a series of steel pipes, in which
flanges are provided on its outer surface to increase the heating surface area.

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(3) Ammonia vaporization and filtration Anhydrous liquid ammonia is vaporized, superheated
and its pressure is maintained according to the process (whether atmospheric or pressure). The
ammonia is filtered (usually across ceramic candle filters that are cleaned.
(4) Air/ammonia mixing and filtration to increase purification of (air/ammonia) mixture.
(5) Ammonia Oxidation (converters) the ammonia/ air mixture is introduced to the converter.
The ammonia air ratio should be strictly maintained at 12 %. Ammonia is reacted with air on
platinum/ rhodium alloy catalysts in the oxidation section of nitric acid plants nitric oxide and
water are formed. The yield of nitric oxide depends on pressure and temperature.
(6) Cooler reactor (Oxidation of NO) Nitric oxide is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide as the
combustion gases are cooled. This reaction is unusual because the reaction is quicker at lower
temperatures. The reaction rate has a negative temperature coefficient.
(7) Absorption the absorber is operated with a counter current flow of water. Various
parameters affect the absorption efficiency, mainly:
Pressure in nitric acid production, is favored by high pressure. The benefit of high pressure is
the efficient formation of nitric acid and the minimization of NOx emissions.
Temperature the absorption stage in particular nitric acid formation takes place in the lower
third of the absorption column and is exothermic, so cooling is needed for heat removal. This is
achieved by applying cooling before the absorption column to optimize absorption.
Optimal contact between NOx, O2 and H2O Optimal contact is mainly dependent on the
absorption tower design. Parameters contribute to an optimal design, e.g. the volume, the number
and kind of trays used, the distance between the trays and the number of columns. In addition, a
long residence time will ensure a high recovery of NOX to form HNO3, and also minimize NOX
emissions. Most nitric acid plants have a single absorption tower with sieve or bubble cap trays.
The tray spacing progressively increases up to the top of the absorber. The technology of
ammonia oxidation cans not as such product nitric acid strength more than 60%. This relatively
low strength and can be concentrated by direct (Concentrated acid is formed from liquid N2O4,
oxygen and dilute nitric acid from the final absorption step in a reactor at a pressure of
approximately 50 bar and indirect process (extractive distillation and rectification with sulfuric
acid or magnesium nitrate can be concentrated above 68%. to strong nitric acid).
Sulfuric acid is leading Chemical product in global tonnage production and it is made than any
other compounds. The main raw materials for production are elemental sulfur mining of

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underground deposits, desulfurization of oil and gas, By-product of metal extraction (SO2):
Nonferrous and Pyrite/Ferrous metals and H2SO4 regeneration. The main process
technologies are oxidation of sulphur to sulphur dioxide, oxidation of sulphur dioxide to
sulphur trioxide and absorption of sulphur trioxide by water to Sulfuric acid. Oxidation of SO2
is thermodynamically favored by low temperatures because the reaction is an exothermic
process, a decrease in temperature by removal of the heat will favor the formation of SO 3. The
application of sulfuric acid is mainly for fertilizer market and in some extent for the organic
chemical industry like for Production of detergent, plastics and synthetic fibers and also for
Production of TiO2 and In the metal industry, sulfuric acid is used for pickling ferrous and non-
ferrous materials and in the recovery of copper, nickel, and zinc from low-grade ores.

4. Chlor-alkali industry
The chlor-alkali industry is a major contributor to national economic activity such as Sodium
carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate, Caustic soda, Chlorine, Hydrogen, Hydrochloric acid, Sodium
hypochlorite, NaOCl, Lime/ Calciumoxide, Calcium hydroxide and Calcium hypochlorite.
The chloralkali process is processing of brine electrolysis to produce caustic soda, chlorine, and
hydrogen. The Electrolysis process classified into:
Diaphragm cell process the process differs from the mercury cell process in that all reactions
take place within one cell and the cell effluent contains both salt and caustic soda. A diaphragm
is employed to separate the chlorine liberated at the anode, and the hydrogen and caustic soda
produced directly at the cathode. The diaphragm is usually made of asbestos and separates the
feed brine (anolyte) from the caustic-containing catholyte.
The mercury cell process involves two “cells”. In the primary electrolyser (or brine cell),
purified and saturated brine flows through an elongated trough that is slightly inclined from the
horizontal. In the bottom of this trough a shallow film of mercury (Hg) flows along the brine cell
co-currently with the brine. As it is liberated at the surface of the mercury cathode, the sodium
immediately forms an amalgam. The liquid amalgam flows from the electrolytic cell to a
separate reactor, called the decomposer.
Membrane cell processes Today, it is the most promising and fast developing technique for the
production of caustic soda.

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In this process, the anode and cathode are separated by a water-impermeable ion-conducting
membrane. Brine solution flows through the anode compartment where chloride ions are
oxidized to chlorine gas.
The sodium ions migrate through the membrane to the cathode compartment which contains
flowing caustic soda solution. Each process represents a different method of keeping the chlorine
produced at the anode and hydrogen including sodium hydroxide at the cathode. The main
difficulty during the electrolysis of NaCl solutions is that of achieving Continuous separation of
chlorine generated at the anode and sodium hydroxide produced at the cathode. Diaphragm cells
have the advantage operating at a lower voltage than mercury cells, operating with less pure
brine than required by membrane cells. But have disadvantage when using asbestos diaphragms,
the process inherently gives rise to environmental releases of asbestos.

5. Fermentation and beverage industries

Fermentation is by using microorganisms, typically grown on a large scale, to produce valuable
commercial products or to carry out important chemical transformations. It can be aerobic or
anaerobic. Microbial Growth Kinetics describes how the microbe grows in the fermenter. This
information is important to determine optimal batch times. The growth of microbes in a
fermenter can be broken down into four stages:

Lag Phase: this is the first phase in the fermentation process the cells have just been injected
into a new environment and they need time to adjust accordingly and cell growth is minimal in
this phase.
Exponential Phase: The second phases in the fermentation process and cells have adjusted to
their environment and also rapid growth takes place.
Stationary Phase: the microbes do not have enough nutrients in the medium to continue
multiplying; the number of cells multiplying equals the number of cells dying and
Death Phase: The fourth phase in the fermentation process the number of cells dying is greater
than the number of cells multiplying. The cause of the death phase is usually that the cells have
consumed most of the nutrients in the medium and there is not enough left for sustainability.
In beverage industries all alcoholic beverages involve the action of fungi. Most involve the
genus Saccharomyces. These yeasts covert six carbon sugars such as glucose to ethanol and
carbon dioxide and live under anaerobic conditions. Plants often store nutrition as starch. Yeasts

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cannot use starch. The starch is broken down by enzymes in the plant into sugars. The sugars are
then converted by the yeasts into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

The process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is
called a brewery. The main raw materials for beer production are: Cereals Malt, mainly barley,
Water, Hops and Yeast. Two main types of yeast (for brewing purposes) are Saccharomyces
cerevisiae (ale yeast) Prefers warmer temperatures (20-25°C) and will flocculate on top of the
beer and Saccharomyces uvarum (lager yeast) prefers cooler temperatures and will flocculate at
the bottom of the beer (~5°C). The variety of hop, the amount added, and the point or points in
the boil at which they are added all contribute to the flavor of the beer. They add bitterness when
added early to the boil, flavor if added in the middle, and aroma when added at the end. The
main charactestics of beer are Alcohol Content, Flavor, Aroma, Clarity and Head.
The main production technology of beer is Malting involves the following steps:
(1)Malting is to activate amylases (and proteases). (2) Malt milling to give malt enzymes
opportunity during mashing to act on the malt contents and break them down.
(3)Mashing is mixing of the milled grist and the brewing liquor at the correct temperature and in
the correct proportions to obtain the mash.

(4)Wort separation Wort and spent grain can be separated. (5) Wort boiling Sweet Wort is
boiled with hops in a copper (kettle, hop-boiler).
(6) Wort clarification removing of suspended particles, the remains of hops and flocs of trub or
hot break. Wort cooling should be carried out rapidly and under aseptic conditions to stop
chemical reactions continuing and to minimize chances of growth of any contaminating
microbes.
(7) Wort aeration In the initial stage of `fermentation' the freshly pitched yeast needs to
be in Wort that contains dissolved oxygen.
(8) Fermentation is the process at which alcohol is produced. The process takes about seven to
ten days or more.
(9) Maturation is stabilization of fermented beer. (10) Filtration the process involves the
removal of any remaining yeast cells and the removal of precipitated protein and poly
phenol haze material.

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(11) Carbonation carbon dioxide is the gas produced naturally in primary and secondary
fermentation and that added to the beer. It imparts sparkle and `mouth feel' and sharpness
associated with its properties as an acid gas. Finally the finished beers are packed.
Distillation is a kind of separation technique of two or more volatile liquid compounds by using
the difference in boiling points and relative volatility. The process takes place in a column, and
two heat exchangers. In the section below the feed, the more volatile components are stripped
from the liquid and this is known as the stripping section. Above the feed, the concentration of
the more volatile components is increased and this is called the enrichment, or more commonly,
the rectifying section. The different raw materials/feed stocks for ethanol production are any
Sugars containing substances. Main processes of ethanol production from Molasses are molasses
treatment, Yeast propagation, Fermentation, Distillation and Dehydration.

6. Sugar industries
Sugar production involves two distinct operations: (a) processing sugar cane or sugar beets into
raw sugar and (b) processing the raw sugar into refined sugar. Cane and beet sugar extracts
contain sucrose and undesirable amounts of polysaccharides, lignins, proteins, starches, gums,
waxes, and other colloidal impurities that contribute colour and/or taste to the crystalline product
and reduce product yield. The raw juice, therefore, is subjected to heating, liming addition and
clarification to remove proteins and colloidal matter. Sugar refining is a highly energy-intensive
process.

The process technologies of sugar production are:

(1) Extraction: Once the cane has been graded, it is washed to remove any impurities ahead of
being processed. The cleaning of the cane can be done wet or dry. Dry cleaning is the preferred
method as it is more environmentally friendly. The juice is the valuable extract as it is used for
sugar and ethanol production. The sugar cane waste, which is known as ‘bagasse’, is then used as
fuel to generate electricity in the power plant.

(2) Clarification: The sugar cane juice is then sent for clarification. The juice is treated for
precipitate elimination via coagulation and sedimentation. The process removes sand, clay and

26
other substances from the juice. Nearly 90% of the weight of sugar cane is juice, which contains
up to 17% of sucrose (common sugar) and small amounts of dextrose and fructose.

To avoid sucrose decomposition, the juice then passes through a process of pH correction. Once
this has been done, the juice is mainly water, mineral salts and sugars.

(3) Boiling: The juice goes through a boiling process, where moisture is boiled off. During the
boiling and evaporation process around 75% of the water is removed, resulting in thicker syrup
concentrate. The syrup is then cooked so that crystallisation and recuperation of the sucrose can
take place.

(4) Crystallisation: The syrup is placed in large vessels where it is rotated slowly, allowing it to
cool evenly. Seeding is then carried out, where small seed crystals are added to the syrup to
catalyze the crystallisation process. The molasses separates from the crystals, and the liquid is
ready for the next stage. Centrifuging: To complete the process, centrifuging then takes place.
During this process the crystallized syrup is separated from the sugar and dried by being put into
centrifuges. This produces raw sugar by separating the sugar crystals from the surrounding
molasses.

7. Cement technology

Cement is a manmade mineral structure created at high temperatures, mainly comprising lime
(CaO), Silica (SiO2) and oxides of aluminum and iron (Al2O3 and Fe2O3.) it is a hydraulic
powder material, which reacts with water to produce strength-bearing lattices.

When cement is mixed with water to form a paste, these chemical reactions cause the paste to
first stiffen and then set into a solid mass. This stiffening and setting is caused by the growth of
hydroxide crystals, which are the product of the reactions between the cement minerals and
water. These hydraulic reactions continue for many hours, days, weeks and months beyond the
initial setting of the cement, increasing the strength of the mortar or concrete made from the
cement. Cement Types and Applications are Ordinary Portland Cement clinker can be ground
together with gypsum to produce Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). However, the production
and use of blended cements containing pozzolan additions is assuming ever greater importance

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(PPC). White cement-with low Fe2O3 content and higher silicate content, are used in decorative
applications. Sulfate Resisting Cement is blended cement designed to improve the performance
of concrete where the risk of sulfate attack may be present. Sulphate resisting cements is made
with low alumina ratio, and therefore low C3A content. Low-alkali cements are
Portland cements with a total content of alkalies not above 0.6 percent. These are used in
concrete made with certain types of aggregates that contain a form of silica that reacts
with alkalies to cause an expansion that can disrupt a concrete. Low heat cement is special
tailored cement which generates low heat of hydration during setting. It is manufactured by
modifying the chemical composition of normal Portland cement. Low heat Portland cements are
used in massive concrete applications where the heat of hydration of the cement may cause
thermal stressing and cracking of the concrete. The raw materials used for cement production are
groups in to three categories: Primary raw materials limestone (CaCO3) & limestone
containing minerals, Secondary raw materials Clay (Al2O3), sand & silica (aluminum and iron
oxides). Tertiary raw materials Gypsum and Other "alternative" raw materials slag, mill scale,
fly ash. Production steps of cement are:

(1) Quarrying Rock blasted from the quarry is transported to the primary crusher where large
"run of mine" rocks are broken into pieces. Crushing Cement plant raw materials blasted in the
quarry requires size reduction for further processing. Size reduction is performed in crushers and
grinding mills.

(2) Crushing is comminution in the coarse range. Primary crushing involves limestone rock
fed through large capacity crushers. This reduces the rock to a maximum size of
approximately150mm. Secondary crushing further reduces this to 75mm or under.

(3) Homogenization the raw materials are then proportioned to the correct chemical balance and
milled together to a fine powder, raw meal, to ensure high quality of cement. The chemistry of
the raw materials and raw meal is very carefully controlled.

(4) Grinding refers to comminution in the fine range. The grinding media (steel ball) and the
feed material to be ground are brought together in a rotating tubular shaped compartment. The

28
media and material rises to an optimum height, necessary for grinding operation, and come
tumbling down (cascading and/or contracting).

(5) Kiln feed homogenization Materials are homogenized to ensure consistency of product
quality.

(6) Preheater is a series of vertical cyclones. Where the raw meal is passed down through these
cyclones it comes into contact with the swirling hot kiln exhaust gases moving in the opposite
direction and as a result heat is transferred from the gas to material.

(7) Pre-calcination the calciner is a combustion chamber at the bottom of the pre-heater above
the kiln back-end. Up to 65% of the total energy needs of the kiln system can be supplied to the
calciner. Calciners allow for shorter rotary kilns and for the use of lower grade alternative fuels.
Calcination is the decomposition of CaCO3 to CaO and CO2.

(8) pyro-processing raw meal, more accurately termed "hot meal" at this stage then enters the
rotary kiln. The kiln is the world's largest piece of industrial equipment. As the kiln rotates at
about 3-5 revolutions per minute, the material slides and tumbles down through progressively
hotter zones towards the flame. Fuel is fired directly into the rotary kiln and the heat is absorbed
into the material being processed. The burning zone is where combination takes place between
the lime ( CaO), and the silica (SiO2 ), Alumina ( Al2O3 ) and ferric oxide (Fe2O3) to form the
four basic clinker components (i.e. C3S,C2S,C4AF and C3A). The basic chemical reactions
taking place in the burning zone are the following:

Alite formation: - 3CaO + SiO2 ------> 3 CaO. SiO2 (C3S)

Belite formation: - 2CaO+ SiO2 ------> 2 CaO. SiO2 (C2S)

Aluminates formation:- 3CaO+ Al2O3 -----> 3 CaO. Al2O3 (C3A)

Ferrite formation:- 4CaO+ Al2O3+ Fe2O3 -----> 4CaO. Al2O3. Fe2O3 (C4AF)

29
Clinker formation is the series of chemical reactions converts the calcium and silicon oxides
into calcium silicates, cement primary constituent. At the lower end of the kiln, the raw materials
emerge as a new substance called clinker.

(9) Clinker cooling the clinker tumbles onto a grate cooled by forced air. Once cooled the
clinker is ready to be ground into the grey powder known as Portland cement. To save energy,
heat recovered from this cooling process is re circulated back to the kiln or pre-heater tower.

(10) Cement mill the clinker is then ground with other mineral components to cement. Gypsum
is used to control the setting time of the product; Slag and fly ash can also be used to control
other properties of the cement.

8. Pharmaceutical technology

Pharmaceutical technology is one of the pharmaceutical sciences dealing with the composition,
formulation, preparation and quality control of commercially manufactured drugs. The discipline
primarily focuses on the conditions which enable the transformation of active pharmaceutical
ingredients (APIs) into medicines. It also looks at the patterns which control these processes and
the relationships of drug formulations and their effect when applied.

Goals of Pharmaceutical technology are Production of high quality, safe drugs with required
stability and involve the activities related with design, research, development, production and
quality control of drugs. The most extensive part of the field is concerned with the manufacturing
of APIs where pharmaceutical technology is transforming them into pharmaceuticals and their
dosage forms.

Drug formulation is the process of designing and producing the drugs that are eventually sold to
patients as pharmaceuticals. In this phase of development, a variety of substances are combined
with the drug's active ingredient. This chemical has the intended effect on the patient to form the
finalized drug.

Stages of drug development Step 1: Discovery, Step 2: Preclinical Research, Step 3: Clinical
Research, Step 4: FDA Drug Review and Step 5: FDA Post-Market Drug Safety Monitoring.

30
Regulatory affair as a discipline covers a broad range of specific skills and occupations. It is
composed of a group of people who act as a relationship between the potentially conflicting
worlds of government, industry, and consumers to help make sure that marketed products are
safe and effective when used as advertised. People who work in regulatory affairs negotiate the
interaction between, the regulators (the government), the regulated (industry), and the market
(consumers) to get good products to the market and to keep them there while preventing bad
products from being sold.

Quality assurance (QA) in the pharmaceutical industry is essential for ensuring that
pharmaceutical products are manufactured to a safe and consistent standard. It is a very broad
field that refers to any aspect that may affect a drug's quality during its research, development,
manufacturing, and sales phases. Focuses on the product to find defects that remain after
development. QC professionals find these issues in a variety of ways, including software testing.
The main objective of quality control in the Pharmaceutical Industry is, to test the drugs in their
various stages of production, to verifying that they are able to proceed to the next stage and
release the manufacturing process in accordance with the regulations and specifications required
for consumption. The difference between these two is that, QA is process-oriented, and it focuses
on preventing quality issues. QC is product-oriented and focused on identifying quality issues in
manufactured products that could affect customer satisfaction. Another way to understand this
distinction is actions vs. results. QA involves the actions which create the product, while QC is
focused on the resulting product.

A packaging engineer is a talented and creative individual that’s a natural problem-solver, able
to reduce unnecessary usage, implement packaging technology and save some money in your
brand’s production and distribution channels. They’re responsible for ensuring that a product’s
packaging keeps the product safe, looks good, and doesn’t cost more than it should. This is done
by establishing the most constructive and efficient way to communicate and safeguard your
products along the distribution chain, from point of manufacture to final consumer.

Modern biotechnology is the use of biological systems found in organisms or the use of the
living organisms themselves to make technological advances and adapt those technologies to
various fields. Industrial biotechnology is the application of biotechnology for industrial

31
purposes that also include industrial fermentation. Applying the modern techniques, it improves
efficiency and reduces the multifaceted environmental impacts of industrial processes including
paper and pulp, chemical manufacturing, and textile.

Biocatalysts have been developed by the industrial biotechnology companies such as enzymes,
to synthesize chemicals.

Enzymes are proteins produced by all organisms. The desired enzyme can be manufactured in
commercial quantities using biotechnology.

Microorganisms, find their use in chemical production for the design and manufacture of new
plastics/textiles and the development of new sustainable energy sources such as biofuels.

8. Environmental biotechnology

Environmental biotechnology is the branch of biotechnology that addresses environmental

problems, such as removal of pollution, renewable energy generation or biomass production by
exploiting biological process. It is concerned with the application of biotechnology to solve
problems in the ecosystem. It can be considered as a driving force for integrated environmental
protection leading to sustainable development.

Applications of environmental biotechnology are: Bioremediation refers to the application of

biotechnical methods which help in developing enzyme bioreactors that will not only pretreat
some industrial and food waste components but also allow their efficient removal via sewage
system without using solid waste disposal mechanisms and Prevention protects the environment
by conserving and protecting natural resources while strengthen economic growth through more
efficient production in industry and less need for households, business and communities to
handle waste.

Genetic engineering is the name for the methods that scientists use to introduce new traits to an
organism. This process results in genetically modified organism or GMO.

9. Surface coating industry

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Surface coating is any mixture of film-forming materials plus pigments, solvents, and other
additives, which, when applied to a surface and cured or dried, yields a thin film that is
functional and often decorative. Surface coatings include paints, drying oils and
varnishes, synthetic clear coatings, and other products whose primary function is to protect the
surface of an object from the environment. These products can also enhance the aesthetic appeal
of an object by accentuating its surface features or even by concealing them from view. Most
surface coatings employed in industry and by consumers are based on synthetic polymers—that
is, industrially produced substances composed of extremely large, often interconnected
molecules that form tough, flexible, adhesive films when applied to surfaces. The other
component materials of surface coatings are pigments, which provide colour, opacity, gloss, and
other properties; solvents or carrier liquids, which provide a liquid medium for applying the film-
forming ingredients; and additives, which provide a number of special properties. This article
reviews the composition and film-forming properties of polymer-based surface coatings,
beginning with the polymer ingredients and continuing through the pigments, liquids, and
additives.

10. Polymer industry

Polymer is a large macromolecule which is essentially a combination of many subunits.

The types of polymerization mechanism used depend on the types of functional groups attached
to the reactants. Polymers are classified based on consideration of source of availability are:
natural polymer (occur naturally and are found in plant and animals) example DNA, proteins
and carbohydrates.
Semi synthetic polymer is derived from natural occurring polymer and undergoes further
chemical modification example cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate.
Man-made or synthetic polymers are synthesized in the laboratory example nylon, poly-
ethylene and poly-styrene. Based on structure of monomer polymers are classified as linear
polymer: contain long and straight chains example PVC, used largely on making pipes and
electric cable.
Branched polymer: linear polymer form branches example low density poly ethylene. Cross-
linked polymer: composed of bifunctional and trifunctional monomers. They have stronger

33
covalent bonded example Bakelite and melamine. Classification based on molecular forces
elastomer: rubber like solids weak interaction forces are present, example rubber. Fiber: strong,
tough, high tensile strength and strong forces of interaction are present, example nylon 6, 6.
Thermoplastic: have intermediate forces of attraction, example PVC. Thermosetting polymer:
these improves it materials mechanical properties. It provides enhanced chemical and heat
resistance, example phenolic, epoxies and silicon.
Biodegradable polymer: which are degraded and decayed by microorganisms like bacteria.
These are used in surgical bandages, capsule coating and surgery. Properties of polymer are
physical properties: as chain length and cross-linking increase, the tensile strength of polymer
increases and also polymer do not melt and they change state from crystalline to semi crystalline.
Chemical properties: compared to conventional molecules with different side molecules, the
polymer is enabled by hydrogen bonding and ionic bonding resulting in better cross-linking
strength.

11. Leather technology

Leather is the primary product from the tanning industry, where the product has got its
applications in making footwear, furniture and bags. Processing of skin or hides into stable
material – leather is known as tanning. There are several processes involved in leather making;
one of the processes is tanning. In tanning process, higher concentration of chromium is
commonly used but chromium is regarded as one of the toxic heavy metal. The disposal of these
chromium effluents into water bodies is known to cause various ill effects. To replace that,
vegetable tanning can be practiced, where the method is easy as well as ecofriendly.
Steps involved in leather processing:
Soaking is the first step involved in tanning where the preserved raw skins or salted skins are
treated with water to make the skin dirt free and soft. The main purpose of soaking is to remove
salt, rehydrate the dry skin and also to remove unwanted materials like blood, soil, dung, etc. The
soaking time depends on condition of skins or hides.
Liming is the second operation is liming which involves the removal of hair and unwanted
materials which are not transferred to leather. It also loosens the epidermis and also removes
soluble skin proteins. It uses lime and sodium sulphide as liquor. The hair is loosened due to

34
increase in high pH. The higher pH also cause splitting and swelling of fibre bundles. Dehairing
and fleshing is also done in order to remove extra flesh and allow tannins to penetrate easily.
Deliming is the process of adjusting pH between 8-9 which enhances the enzyme activity and
converts proteins into soluble forms. It uses ammonium sulphate and results in de-swelling of
pelts. Deliming decreases the plumping of skin or hide.
Bating makes the grain surface soft and flexible. It prepares skin for tanning. It is an enzymatic
operation which removes unwanted proteins and increases the degree of stretch. It imparts
flexibility and softness towards the leather.
Degreasing is a process used to remove extra fat and oils which allows the tannin to penetrate
easily through the skin. This step can be carried out by emulsion of fats using detergents or
surfactants
Tanning is the main operation which converts skin or hide to stable material called leather. In
this step tannins are allowed to interact with the prepared skin which act on collagen and make it
stable.
Fixing acid is mostly used in this process which ensures homogenous tanning of hides in leather
processing.
Types of tanning

Mineral Tanning is a process which uses basic chromium sulphate as tanning agent after the
process of pickling. Once the desired level of penetration the pH is again increased to facilitate
the process which is termed as basification and the obtained product is called as wet blue.

Tawing is another practice which uses aluminum salts and alum along with other materials such
as flour, egg yolk and other salts. It is an age old traditional process which gives a wet white
product. In this method the skin is tawed in alum and salt solution which increases flexibility,
stretchability, etc whereas egg yolk and flour enhances the handling properties. Tawing was
conventionally used on goatskins and pigskins.

Chrome Tanning is the most commonly used tanning process. It uses Chromium (III) sulfate
which has been considered as the most effective and efficient tanning agent. It forms poly
chromium compounds by a process called olation which acts as active compounds in tanning that
crosslinks the collagen subunits. The leather obtained by chromium contains 4-5 % of chromium
and its efficiency is determined by enhanced hydrothermal stability and resistance to shrinkage at

35
high temperature. Although chrome is an effective tanning agent it is having some hazards
towards human.

Effects of chrome tanning towards human: Chromium in its +6 oxidation state is referred to as
Hexavalent chromium. It is mainly used for coatings, wood preservation, dyeing, etc. The
chromate mimics the sulphate in its structure and surface charge which can enter the cell and
cause cancer, eye irritation and skin allergies. There is a high risk of getting cancers to the
workers exposed to hexavalent chromium for a prolonged time. It has been reported lung cancer
among workers in chromium chemical production. Repeated exposure to hexavalent can also
damage the respiratory tract and may also cause nasal cancer. Direct eye contact of chromate
cause permanent eye damage and eye irritation. Prolonged exposure to skin cause skin allergies,
dryness, fissured skin, skin ulcers and swelling. In other way some workers may develop allergic
sensitization where exposure to small amount cause serious skin rash. Other effects of chromium
include dizziness, growth problems, reproductive disorders, discoloration and erosion of teeth.

Vegetable tannin is the most suitable ecofriendly process which results in release of less
pollutant to the environment. Vegetable tanning involves usage of tannins extracted from various
parts of a plant. It mainly depends on amount of tannins in the extract which can be determined
by various methods such as Folins Denis method, Mass spectrophotometer, UV detection,
Reverse-phase High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), Mass spectrophotometer, nuclear
magnetic resonance and Circular dichroism. Vegetable tanning is a two stage tanning which
includes fixing and penetration. Penetration involves diffusion of tannins into the skin whereas
fixing makes the penetrated tannins bind with collagen forming stable material. It is mainly
affected by several factors such as temperature, pH, mechanical actions and particle size. The pH
is the most important factor that affects the penetration and fixing of tannins. The reduction of
pH in tanning liquor increases the potential of collagen fibres to swell and increasing the
tendency of tannins to bind with collagen. Temperature is another most important parameter
which affects the vegetable tanning. Increase in temperature results in high diffusion of tannins
and gives high degree of tannage. Acid and salt content in tannin liquor greatly influences the
physical condition of leather. Control of these parameters results in production of most stable
and flexible leather which results in release of less contaminants and thereby protecting the
environment. Hence the current study is an eco-friendly approach which reduces the toxic waste

36
generation when compared to chrome tanning process and thereby reducing environmental
impacts by contributing towards greener or cleaner development of leather processing.

[Link] industry
Agro-chemical is vary vast filed and deals with production of pesticide and fertilizers increase
in the crop yields.

Developments in the Use and Productivity of Agro-chemicals

Chemical Fertilizers The objective of fertilizer use is to limit reductions in crop yield due to
shortage (temporal or spatial) of nutrient supply. All crops remove nutrients nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium (NPK) from the soil and, unless these are replaced, the fertility of the
soil declines. Nutrients can be produced from different sources: chemical (manufactured or
mined), recycling (green manure, animal waste), mineralization in the soil and atmospheric
deposition. Chemical Pesticides Whereas fertilizers are used throughout the world and the
chemical compounds they contain are easy to define, chemical crop protection is much more
complex. There are mechanical, chemical and biological methods of crop protection. Chemical
crop protection agents can be defined as substances that protect plants from diseases, pests and
weeds, or which are used to secure yields and facilitate harvesting (growth regulators,
haulmkilling chemicals).

Pesticides can be classified in many different ways. One might classify them according to
intended use: disease and weed control, haulm killing, soil disinfecting, growth regulation,
grassland enhancement, and so on. One might also use biological classification: herbicides,
nematicides, bactericides and fungicides, herbicides, insecticides and acaricides (to control
mites).

Impacts of Agro-chemicals on Environment and Health: The residuals that are generated as
by-products of agricultural activity may be dealt with by the environment in two ways: (1) they
may be reallocated and/or accumulated, or (2) they may be processed and recycled. Ecological
processes exist with category (2) that result in the breakdown and reuse of chemicals, but are not

37
available in (l). Chemical pesticides, phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) belong to the first
category. Initially they are diluted and dispersed, but ultimately they will accumulate in some
environmental component such as soil or water. Substances in the second category include
nitrogen (N) and organic pesticides. Within limits, the environment can receive and process them
without any negative effects. This capacity is constrained, firstly, by the environmental
transportation mechanisms that carry that substance from the point of release to the
environmental component responsible for its breakdown and, secondly, by thresholds that, if
exceeded, will induce ecosystem changes. Nitrogen can only be taken up by crops if it is placed
close enough to the root system; if that is not the case, it will for example, leach into
groundwater. Nutrient surpluses (organic and inorganic) can lead to a decrease in the quality of
groundwater and surface water and to a reduction in the value of nature. It might affect the
quality of drinking water, which may lead to health problems.

[Link] and paper industry

The pulp and paper manufacturing sector is energy and raw materials intensive, with a high
capital costs and long investment cycles. Papers are made with the pulp of the woods, which is
an ecofriendly. Paper is made with pulp of woods through the following processes.

(1) Pulping- to separate and clean the fibers, (2) Refining procedure after pulping, (3)
dilution process to form a thin fiber mixture, (4) formation of fibers on a thin screened,
(5) pressurization to enhance the materials and (6) finishing procedure to provide a
suitable surface for usage.

38
CHAPTER ONE
1.1. Introduction
Unit operation and unit process
The first question about any process
1. How is it going to be carried out?
This question is about unit operation and unit processes depending up on whether the change
required is chemical or physical in nature.

• Chemical processes could be brought about only by unit processes while unit operations
are must for physical changes.
Unit Processes
Oxidation, reduction, hydrogenation, Dehydrogenation, Sulphonation, Sulphation, etc...
Unit Operations

Solid handling, separation process, size reduction …etc

The 2nd and 3rd questions about thermodynamics and rate of chemical reaction

2. How far is it going to be carried out?

3. How fast is it going to be carried out?

Chemical engineering unit operations consists of five classes

❖ Fluid Flow Processes, including fluids transportation, filtration and solids fluidization.
❖ Heat Transfer Processes, including evaporation and heat exchange.

❖ Mass Transfer Processes, including absorption, distillation, extraction, adsorption and

drying.

❖ Thermodynamic Processes, including gas liquefaction and refrigeration.

❖ Mechanical Processes, including solid transportation, crushing, grinding, pulverization

and screening.

39
Definition of Mechanical Operation

What is mechanical operation?

MUO is the branch of science and engineering dealing with the practice, description and study of
the processing, handling, characterization, conversion and use of wide variety of particulate
material.

Mechanical operation is a multidisciplinary field

What is the meaning of processing?
Any particular application it is called processing
Based on mechanical force:
• To mix different components
• Enhance mass and heat transfer (drying, absorption, etc.)
• To separate a specified component from a mixture
• Size reduction and enlargement
Most frequent mechanical unit operations (MUO):
Size reduction, screening, sedimentation, fluidization, filtration, centrifugation, cyclones,
magnetic separation, electro-static precipitators, floatation, solid transportation, mixing
1.2. Classification of coarsely dispersed material system

Separation of coarsely dispersed material depends on:-

The selection of a process in which the behavior of the material is influenced to a very marked
degree by some physical property the differences in the behavior of the particles in a moving
fluid (size and density)

• Generally, large particles separated by means of screens.

• small particles are separated in a fluid
If not all, most unit operations depend on particle size range of the material involved.
Particles resulting from size reduction (naturally):
• Are not perfectly spherical
• Contain (more or less) broad range of particle sizes

40
 Two basic challenges
❖ How to characterize a particle of arbitrary shape by one single particle
size?
❖ How to describe a particle size distribution?
1.3. Particle size measuring methods
• Microscopic techniques are based on direct observation (used as a reference
method)
• Light microscopy (>0.5m)
• (Scanning) electron microscopy (>5nm)
• Sieving
• Dry sieving (50 m – 10cm)
• Wet sieving (>20 m) Performed in a range of standard sieves
• Aperture size is the dimension of the opening
• Mesh number is the number of openings per inch
e.g. 200mesh = 200 openings/inch
= 74 m/opening
The particle size of the material remaining between the two sieves is mostly accepted to be halve
of the sum of the two sieve openings
❖ Sedimentation
✓ Particle size range 50 m – 0.5 m
✓ Detection techniques Photo, X-ray, Gravimetric, Densitometric and Pipette-
sedimentometry
✓ Sedimentation in a centrifugal field is applicable (1 m – 1nm)
✓ Electrical sensing zone (coulter counter) :- Suspension passed through capillary
conductivity cell Size range (400 m – 0.5 m)
✓ Light scattering techniques
Classical light scattering according to Rayleigh or Mie-theory
• Laser-Fraunhofer-diffraction (1 m -1800 m)
• Laser-photon correlation spectroscopy(3 nm-3 m)

41
1.4. Particle Technology
Particle technology is a term used to refer to the science and technology related to the handling
and processing of particles and powders. Particle technology is also often described as powder
technology, particle science and powder science.
The three most important characteristics of an individual particle are its composition (density),
its size and its shape (regular or irregular)
The idea of equivalent size of diameter is developed (The size of spherical particles having the
same controlling characteristic as the particle under consideration)
Example. For solid catalyst the surface area is the most controlling parameter. To determine the
surface area(s) we can use surface diameter
Particle size characterization:
Spherical particles have one single dimension (i.e. the diameter )
Particles of arbitrary shape are assigned a diameter of an equivalent sphere. The equivalency can
be based on:
Surface area of the particle (a1)

2
 ds 
Sp = 4   = d s2
 2
Sp
 ds =


• Gravitational free settling velocity can be controlled by mass of the

particle (particle size can be defined by volumetric diameter )
Volume of the particle (Vp): 4 d  
3

Vp =   V  = dV3
3  2  6
1
 6 Vp  3
 dV =  
  

Specific surface per unit volume of the particle (sp):

The dynamics of gas bubbles in a liquid or that of liquid drops in a liquid or gas depends not only
on the bubble or drop volume but also on the interfacial tension at the gas-liquid or liquid-liquid
interface. In this case the bubble or drop can be defined using volume surface diameter (Sauter

42
diameter,dvs) - which is diameter of spherical particle having the same specific surface (surface
area per unit volume) as the particle (bubble or drop) under consideration.

4  d vs 
2

 
S p = S =
3  2 
=
6
= =
( )
S P  d s2
=
6 d s2
4  d vs 
3
d vs VP  d 3
( ) dV3
  6
V
3  2 
6 6 V p dV3
 dVS = = = 2 = Sauter
S ds ds
• Where sp - specific surface (surface area/volume)
• Sedimentation velocity of the particle (u):

• Sieve opening = mesh equivalent sphere diameter

screen average size(davg)
Particle shape
Shape factor is derived from the ratio of two different equivalent sphere diameters:

Sphericity ()
surface of sphere whose volume equals particle volume VP
=
surface of sphere whose surface equals particle area d S
2 2
 Vp   6V p 
3 3

    
  6    dV2
= 2 = = 2 = dV2 / Sp
d 
2 ds ds
 s  
 
• The reciprocal of sphericity is shape factor (surface shape factor =ɦ )
• the specific surface ratio (n) defined as the ratio of specific surface (surface area per unit
mass) of the particle to the specific surface of a spherical particle of the same diameter.
• Circularity ():

43
 Based on a projected area of the particle (found from image analysis) a1P and the
perimeter of the projected area P.

projected area of sphere equal to particle projected area

=
Pr ojected area of sphere with perimeter equal to particle perimeter
2

  a1P 
2

 
4   4  4 a1P 
= =
 P
2
P2
 
4  
1.5. Mixture of particles
Let mi designate the total mass of the i-th fraction. Since a fraction contains particles of the same
size, the specific surface of the i-th fraction can be computed using equation below.
6𝑛𝑖
𝑠𝑖 =𝜌
𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔𝑖

And surface area of ith fraction

S i
= ms i i
= 6 ni mi  d
s avg
(12)

Specific surface of a mixture will be

S m
= Total surface area of all fractions
Total mass of mixture

6 ni m i  d s avg 1
+ 6 n2 m 2  d
s avg 2
+
(13)
m1 + m 2
+

Statistical Mean Diameter

We use it when we need to know the average size of entire mixture Statistical mean can be
expressed in many different ways. The matter can be decided only from experience
1.6. Particle size distribution analysis ( Granulometric analysis)
Particle Size Distribution is essential in many chemical processes such as crystallization,
polymerization and precipitation in which production quality depends on the measurement and
control of PSD that is particle size distribution.
Particle size is determined by a number of methods such as shown on next page in table.
So the easiest method to determine PSD is sieve analysis where powder is separated on sieves of
different sizes.

44
CHAPTER TWO
2.1. Size Reductions
Objective of size reduction (communition) is to increase surface area
Some of the practical benefits:
• For reactions taking place b/n solid and gas or solid and liquid
– E.g. combustion of solid particles
• Leaching or extraction
• Drying
• Properties of a material
– E.g. color and covering power of a pigment
• Mixing of solids
2.2. Mechanism of size reduction
– When a single lump of material is subjected to a sudden impact, it will break into
• Few relatively large particles + intermediate particle sizes + number of
fine particles
– When the energy of impact increases, the larger particles will further disintegrate
while the size of finer particles will not much altered.
• The size of fine particles is closely connected with the internal structure of
the material but larger particles with the process by which the size
reduction is effected
The method of application of the force to the particles
– Impact: produced by a single rigid force
– Compression: particle disintegration by two rigid force
– Shear: produced by a fluid or by particle-particle interaction
– Attrition: arising from particles scraping against one another or against a rigid
surface.
2.3. Size Reduction Equipment
Size reduction equipment is divided into crushers, grinders, ultrafine grinders, and cutting
machines.
The principal types of size-reduction machines are as follows:
A. Crushers (coarse and fine)

45
 - Jaw crushers
- Gyratory crushers
- Crushing rolls
B. Grinders (intermediate and fine)
- Hammer mills; imp actors
- Rolling-compression mills
- Attrition mills
- Tumbling mills
C. Ultrafine grinders
- Hammer mills with internal classification
- Fluid-energy mills
- Agitated mills
D. Cutting machines
- Knife cutters; dicers; slitters
These machines do their work in distinctly different ways. Slow compression is the
characteristic actions of crushers. Grinders employ impact and attrition, sometimes combined
with compression; ultra-fine grinders operate principally by attrition.
2.4. Energy utilization
➢ Producing elastic deformation of the particles before fracture occurs
➢ Producing inelastic deformation which results in size reduction
➢ Causing elastic distortion of the equipment
➢ Friction between particles, and between particles and the machine
➢ Noise, heat and vibration in the plant
➢ Friction losses in the plant
How we can calculate Reduction Ratio

F
RR =
P
where : RR − reduction ratio
F − average feed particle size
P − average product particle size

46
 I. Kick’s law: the work required for crushing a given quantity of material is constant for a
given reduction ratio irrespective of original size.
Draw back:
The energy required to reduce 100mm to 50mm is the same to that required for reducing 1mm to
0.5mm.
• High energy is required to reduce finer particles
• Can be applied for coarse crushing

 
E = K k ln  F 
 P 
where : E is energy consumed per unit mass
K k is Kick' s cons tan t

II. Rittinger’s law: the work required for size reduction is directly proportional to
the new surface created.
(
E = K R S P' − S F' )
where : E is energy consumed per unit mass
S F' & S P' are specific surface areas per unit mass of feed and product
K R is Rittinger' s cons tan t

E=
(S
− S F'
'
P )
Rittinger' s number

6 K R  1 1   1 1 
E= − = K R'  −
 S  S ' , P S ' , F   '
 S ,P
S ' , F 
where : S ' , P is specific area per unit volume equivalent diameter of the product
S , F is specific area per unit volume equivalent diameter of the feed
'

Overall energy efficiency = (energy required to create new surface)/Total energy supplied
III. Bond’s law: The total work useful in breakage that has been applied to a given weight
of material is inversely proportional to the square root of the average particle size of the
product and the feed.
 1 1  Kb is calculated based on work index wi
E = Kb  −
 P  F 

where : K b is Bond ' s cons tan t
47
 Work index : is defined as the gross energy (in kWh/tonne of feed) necessary to reducea
very large feed to such a size that 80% of product particles will pass through a 0.1 mm screen
F =  , P = 0.1mm and E = wi (in kWh / tonne)
Kb
wi =  K b = 0.3162wi
0.1
 1 
E = 0.3162wi  
1
−
  80 , P  80, F 
 
Applicable for fine size reduction

CHAPTER THREE
3.1. Size Enlargement
Size enlargement by agglomeration as a unit operation of mechanical process technology is
characterized by the structure of the enlarged particles in which, contrary to, for example,
crystals or particles obtained by solidification of melt droplets, the shape and size of the original
particles are still distinguishable.
❑ Agglomeration and adhesion of fine particles are particularly annoying during Transport,
Storage, and feeding. Conglomerates can result in clogging of feeders, prevent discharge
from silos, and cause incorrect metering. The prevention or destruction of such
conglomerates often requires considerable technical efforts.
3.2. Reasons for Agglomeration
• Minimize or eliminate dust, Improve flowability, Improve storage and handling
characteristics, Improve metering and dosing characteristics
• Formulation stability, prevent segregation
• Increase or control bulk density
• Defined shape, size, or weight, Solubility control, dispersability
• Improved appearance
• Increased product value
3.3. Agglomerate Bonding and Strength
Binding Mechanisms

48
 To obtain agglomerates from particular matter, binding forces must act between the
individual particles. According to Rumpf who first published a classification, the
possible mechanisms can be divided into five major groups. The property of sticking
together (as of glue and wood) or the joining of surfaces of different composition
Adhesion: The property of sticking together (as of glue and wood) or the joining of
surfaces of different composition
Cohesion: the intermolecular force that holds together the molecules in a solid or liquid.
3.4. Methods of Size Enlargement by agglomeration
❖ A common classification of methods for the size enlargement of particulate matter
distinguishes between two types of processes:
1. Growth/tumble agglomeration (no external forces)
2. Pressure/agglomeration (low, medium, and high external forces)
Two techniques
Binder-less agglomeration
Agglomeration with the addition of binders.
1. Growth/tumble agglomeration
The mechanism of growth/tumble agglomeration is similar to that of natural agglomeration,
because the particles to be agglomerated are larger, the particle-to-particle adhesion must be
enhanced by the addition of binders (mostly water and other liquids) and the collision probability
must be increased by providing a high particle concentration. Such conditions can be obtained in
inclined discs, rotating drums, any kind of powder mixers, and fluidized beds.

Drawbacks of all tumble agglomeration methods are the limitation to small dimensions of the
particles forming the agglomerate and that, in most cases, only temporarily bonded
conglomerates are formed.
In a broad sense, equipment for tumble agglomeration itself can be divided into:
1. Apparatus producing movement of a densely dispersed bulk mass of particulate solids—
dense phase agglomeration.
2. Apparatus keeping solid particulate matter suspended and loosely dispersed in a suitable
fluid—suspended solids agglomeration.
In both cases, binder is sprayed into the turbulently agitated bed of particles.
2. Pressure agglomeration methods

49
 ❑ Relatively uniformly shaped and sized agglomerates can be obtained by low- to medium-
pressure agglomeration whereby the feed mixture must still be made up of fine particles
and binders.
❑ The moist, often sticky mass of particulate solids and a liquid binder
is extruded through holes in differently shaped screens or perforated dies.
❑ Agglomeration and shaping occur by the pressure forcing the material through the holes
and by frictional forces during passage of the mass.
Depending on the plasticity of the feed mix, short "crumbly," elongated "spaghetti-like," or
cylindrical "green extrudates" are produced.
❑ In most cases a post treatment (typically drying and cooling) is required to obtain final,
permanent strength.
Application of High Pressure to:
➢ Densify powder feed material
➢ Partially crush incoming particles
➢ Force particles into close proximity
➢ Rely on inter-particle forces
➢ Rely on particle molding

CHAPTER FOURE
4.1. Transportation and storage of solids in bulks
Equipments that are mostly used are:
Crushing and screening, conveyor, vibrating feeders, floatation cells, thickeners, dryers, grinding
mills, rotary kiln, classifier, screw conveyors, leaching, digesters, fourdinier, oven bin, storage
bins, classifiers and screens, pebble mills, filters, pneumatic conveying, slurry mixers, dust
collector, cyclone separators, cake washing…etc
All these operations have in common the handling and processing of particulate solids.
4.1.1. Storage of solids
✓ Solids are usually stored out doors, in open piles or confined storage.
✓ The maximum height at which the solids can be piled depends on the angle of repose of
the material.
✓ Angle of repose is maximum slope measured from the horizontal at which a heap of loose
solids will stand without sliding.

50
 ✓ Angle of repose is equal to the angle of internal friction for truly homogeneous solid
mass
✓ The angle of repose is important for the design of processing, storage, and conveying
systems of particulate materials.
✓ When the grains are smooth and rounded, the angle of repose is low.
✓ For very fine and sticky materials the angle of repose is high.
✓ Materials with low angle of repose are highly flowable and can be transported using
gravitational force or a little energy.
4.1.2. Conveyors and elevators are used to transport solids.
An industrial plant typically contains more than one type of conveyor or elevator.
The need for transporting:
✓ To storage area, to packing area, to market place ,to customer store
Important Conveyor Systems Specifications
✓ Load Capacity per Unit Length, Maximum Load Capacity, Conveyor Belt
System Speed/Rated Speed, Throughput, Frame Configuration and Drive
Location
Conveyor selection
The large number of interrelated factors that must be considered complicates selection of the
correct conveyor for a specific bulk material in a specific situation. First, the alternatives among
basic types must be weighed, and then the correct model and size must be chosen. Workability is
the first criterion, but the degree of performance perfection that can be afforded must be
established.
Criteria's for conveyor selection:
➢ Capacity requirement
➢ Length of travel
➢ Lift
➢ Material characteristics
➢ Processing requirement
Types of conveyor
The variety requirements in connection with the conveying of solids have led to the development
of a wide range of equipment which includes:

51
Mechanical conveyors , Gravity chuts , Air slides , Belt conveyor, Screw conveyor, Bucket
elevator, Vibrating conveyors and Pneumatic conveying:

CHAPTER FIVE
4.1. Particle Dynamics
The study of the motion of particles in terms of the forces associated with that motion is called
particle dynamics. A body has a constant velocity unless it is acted on by a net force. Many
individual forces may act on a body, but the resultant or net force must be equal to zero if the
body is not to accelerate.
To simpilify the analysis, some assumptions are taken
❖ The particle is spherical of diameter
❖ The particle is non porous and incompressible.
❖ The density and viscosity of the fluid is constant
❖ The effect of surface characteristics of solid on the dynamics of the particls negligible.
❖ The particle is freely settling under gravity.
❖ The fluid forms an infinite medium.
• Several forces are important when settling occurs:
1. Gravitational forces:- acting downward
2. Buoyancy:- as a particles moves down , it displaces a volume of liquid equal to its
own volume and this displaced liquid moves up exerting an upward forces on the
particles called buoyancy force. Which is equal to the weight of the displaced
liwuid.
3. Centrifugal force: - if any rotational movement is exist centrifugal force occur.
4. Particle drag: - When objects move via fluids (liquids and gas) the molecules create
resistive force know as drag force. Drag force depends on velocity of object, but the
relation varies and is complicated.
W= Gravitational Force FB= buoyancy force Fd= Drag Force

52
  
W = mg =  PVP g =  P   3  g
6 
 
FB =  f V f g =  f   3  g
6  F
 
2
 dx 
Fd =   2  f Cd   F
8  dt 
   d x  v
2
W − FB − Fd = ma =  P   3  2 
 6  dt 
W

4 * * g *  3 * v 2 *  f * Cd
v= =
3 *  f * Cd 4 * g * 
Stokes Law
The value of Cd is determined by the flow regime; the majority of sedimentation phenomena
involve laminar flow conditions.
Laminar flow: stokes’ region: Re  2 and Cd  Cfd = 24/Re
➢ For accelerating particle

d 2 x    18( )  dx 
 =   g − 2 f  
dt 2
 P  ( ) ( P )  dt 
➢ For steady rate of fall:
   18( )  dx 
0 =   g − 2 f  
 P  ( ) ( P )  dt 
 2 * g *  18 * v *  f
v= =
18 *  f g * 

The stoke’s region has an upper limit: Re = 2 and Cd = 24/Re = 12

2*  f
vmax =
max *  f
From Re:
Transient regime: 2 < Re < 500 and Cd = 18.5/Re0.6
1
 4 * 1.6 * g *   4

v= 
 55.5 * ( )0.4 * ( )0.6 
 f f 
Turbulent regime: 500 < Re < 2e5 and Cd = 0.44

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 g * *  0.33 *  f * v 2
v= =
0.33 *  f g * 

• Applications
1. Separation of particles of a given material according to size
2. Separation of particles of the same size, but of different composition (materials A
and B with A> B)
❑ In a liquid of intermediary density (B < f < A)
❑ In a liquid whose density approaches that of the lightest particles (f  B <
A)
The sedimentation velocity of the heavier particles is bigger than that of lighter ones according to
the ratio:

v A vB = ( A −  f ) ( B −  f ) 
1

= ( −  f ) ( B −  f )
0.714
v A vB A

= ( −  f ) ( B −  f )
0.5
v A vB A

Separation of particles differing both in composition and size

❑ In a liquid with (f < B < A)
B  A = ( A −  f ) ( B −  f )m
m = 0.5 in laminar
m = 0.625 in transient
m = 1.0 in turbulent
4.2. Granular Beds
Granular beds may consist of mixtures of particles of several sizes. In flow problems, the mean
surface diameter is the appropriate mean, given in terms of the weight fraction distribution.
Vvoid Vvoid
Porosity ℇ= =
Vbed A×L
Fluidization depends primarily on:
❖ Size of the particles
❖ Density of the particles,

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 ❖ (to some extent also) Particles roughness, temperature, pressure, and humidity of
the gas. Especially small particles are subject to electrostatic and inter-particle
forces.
Especially small particles are subject to electrostatic and inter-particle forces.
Fluidization can be described by an equation giving the pressure drop in a gas flowing through a
packed bed, such as the so-called Ergun equation:

P  f u 2 (1 −  ) 
 150(1 −  )

= + 1.75 
L 3, 2 3 
  f u3, 2 

Industrial application of Fluidized bed
Fluidized beds are used widely in chemical processing industries for separations, rapid mass and
heat transfer operations, and catalyic reactions.
A typical fluidized bed is a cylindrical column that contains particles and through which fluid,
either gaseous or liquid, flows.
Physical Processes
❑ Drying of particles, Coating of surfaces, Granulation, Heat treatment, Filtration, Blending
, Classification
Chemical Processes
❑ Coal combustion, Solid waste incineration, Gas phase polymerization and Fluid catalytic
reaction

CHAPTER SIX
6.1. Mechanical And Hydro –Mechanical Separations
Process equipments – for example those involved with separations in chemical industries deal
with separation of one phase or material from the other components in a multi component
mixture.
1. Diffusional Operations Involves transfer of materials between phases. For example – transfer
or separaion of constituents due to concentration gradients. Applicable to homogenous soluions
2. Mechanical Operaions Applicable to heterogeneous solu-ons. Such techniques are based on
physical differences between the par-cles such as size, shape or density.
6.2. Mechanical Separations
Applicable to separating
➢ solids from gases
➢ liquid drops from gases
➢ solids from solids

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 ➢ solids from liquids
➢ liquids from liquids
General classification of mechanical separation methods
1. Methods that use physical separating medium – use of sieve, septum or membrane, such as a
screen or filter to retain one component and allows the other to pass through
2. Methods that use the differences in the rate of sedimentation of particles or drops
3. Advanced methods – exploit difference in wettability or electrical or magnetic properties of
the substances.
Screening
Method of separating particles based on size alone the undersized particle – called FINES – pass
through the screen opening and the over‐sized particles – called TAILS – do not
Materials through single screen: A single screen can make single separation – two fractions.
Such a separation is called the unseized fractions, because although either the upper or lower
limit of the particle sizes are known, the other limit is not known
Materials through series of screens: Materials passed through a series of screens of different
sizes is separated into sized fractions, that is, fractions in which both the maximum and
minimum particle size is known.
Screening can be done wet occasionally but more commonly dry.
Total material fed on to the screen must leave either as underflow or as over flow
F=D+B
Any material A in the feed must leave in the two streams – under or overflow
FxF = DxD + BxB
Screen Effeciency

The efficiency of a screen is a measure of the success of a screen in closely separating materials
Perfect Screen – all the over sized material in over flow and all the under sized material in
underflow.
A common measure of screen efficiency is the ratio of oversize material that is actually in the
overflow to the amount entering the feed
Efficiency based on oversize Efficiency based on undersize
EA = DxD /FxF EB = B(1− XB ) / F(1− XF )

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3.3. Hydro –Mechanical Separations
Sedimentation
❑ Most wastewaters and waters contain solids, and in many treatment processes solids are
generated e.g., phosphate precipitation, coagulation and activated sludge bioxidation.
❑ Particles in water and wastewater that will settle by gravity within a reasonable period of
time can be removed by "sedimentation" in sedimentation basins (also known as
"clarifiers").
Goals of gravity sedimentation:
1)Produce a clarified (free of suspended solids) effluent.
2)Produce a highly concentrated solid sludge stream.
Two important functions of sedimentation tanks are : clarification and thickening.
❑ Thickening and/or clarification
❑ Concentrated suspension
❑ Gravity is the driving force
❑ Hindered settling
Sedimentation tanks
Generally, two types of sedimentation basins (also called tanks, or clarifiers) are used:
❑ Rectangular and
❑ Circular.
Small particles tends to have very slow settling velocity
The settling velocity can be increased by
❑ Flocculation or coagulation
❑ By changing PH
❑ By stirring
❑ By heating
❑ By addition of flocculants (lime, Al- or Fe-sulphate or
polyelectrolyte)
reducing the viscosity
❑ By heating
❑ By reducing the concentration of thickeners (e.g. by
enzymatic degradation of pectin)

57
Filtration in solid-liquid separation
❑ Filtration may be defined as the separation of solids from liquids by passing a suspension
through a permeable medium which retains the particles.
Physical separation of solid particles from liquid or gas.
➢ A porous medium: allow fluid to pass through and solid particles to be retained.
Filters are classified on following three different basis:
I. Mechanism :- Cake filters, Cross flow filters, depth filters
II. The driving force:- Pressure Filters, Vacuum filters, Centrifugal filters
III. Operation:- Continuous filters, Batch or discontinuous filters
Filter media
• Filter media selection are based on
• The nature of the dispersion, e.g. concentration, f, T…
• The operating conditions, e.g. under pressure or over pressure
• Type of filtration, e.g. continuous or batch wise
• The cost

Chapter Seven
7.1. Mixing Processes And Mixers
Mixing -defined as intermingling of two or more dissimilar portion of material, resulting in the
attainment of a desired level of uniformity either physical, or chemical, in the final product.
Mixing may be conceivably involves the mixing of gases, liquid, or solids in any possible
combination of two or more constituents

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