Statistics
Statistics is the study of collecting, analyzing, interpreting and summarizing data. It helps us
understand and make sense of numbers or information we gather from different sources.
Statistics is just a way to summarize and understand data, making it easier to make decisions or
predictions based on that data.
Inference
Inference is when you figure out something based on the information you already have. It’s like
making a smart guess or prediction.
Statistical Inference
Statistical inference is a way of making guesses, predictions or decision about a big group
(Population) by looking at a small part (Sample) of that group. It’s like taking a small bite of a
cake to decide how the whole cake tastes.
Main two types of statistics
1. Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics are simple ways to describe and understand a set of data. Descriptive data
include:
Mean (Average): Add all the numbers and divide by how many numbers there are.
Median: It shows the central point or the middle value of the data.
Mode: It shows what’s most common or most repeated.
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values.
Standard Deviation: Tells you how much the numbers vary from the average.
Variance: How much the numbers differ from the mean.
2. Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics is a way of making guesses, predictions or decisions about a large group of
things (called a population) by looking at information from a small part of it (called a sample).
For example: Forecasting, Polling and marketing research.
Imagine you want to know how satisfied students in your university are with the Industrial
Relations class you teach. But there are 1000 students, and you can’t ask all of them, that would
take too much time. So, you choose a sample of 100 students and ask them:
“Are you satisfied with the Industrial Relations class? (Yes/No)” Let’s say: 80 students say
Yes 20 students say No. Now, using inferential statistics, you predict that most students in the
whole university (the population) would also feel the same way about 80% are satisfied, based
on the small sample you asked.
Why we choose sample instead of population
We choose a sample instead of the population because it’s:
1. Faster (Time saving): Asking a small group takes less time than asking everyone.
2. Easier: It’s easier to manage and organize data from a small group.
3. Cheaper: Collecting data from everyone can cost a lot of money.
4. More Practical: Sometimes it’s impossible to reach the entire population (like asking every
student in the country).
A good sample represents the population well, so we can still make smart guesses about the
whole group without checking every single person.
Categories of Sampling
1. Probability Sampling or Random Sampling
Probability Sampling (also called Random Sampling) is a way of choosing people or things for a
study where every member of the population have an equal chance of being selected in the
sample. The types include:
A. Simple Random Sampling
Simple Random Sampling is a way of choosing a small group (sample) from a big group
(population) where everyone has an equal chance of being selected.
B. Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is a simple and organized way to choose a sample from a big group. Instead
of picking people randomly, you pick them at a fixed interval, like every 5th, 10th, or 20th
person is being selected in sample.
C. Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a way of choosing a sample by dividing a big group into smaller groups
(called “strata”) based on similar characteristics and then picking some people from each
group.
D. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a way of choosing a sample by dividing a big group (Population) into
different clusters and then randomly picking some of those clusters to study. Instead of
picking individuals one by one, we pick an entire cluster.
2. Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is a way of choosing a sample from population where not everyone
has an equal chance of being selected in the sample. The types include:
A. Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is a way of choosing a sample that’s easy to reach and easily available.
Instead of picking people randomly, you select those who are close to you or simple to contact.
B. Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling (also called judgmental sampling) is a way of choosing people or things for
a study according to your purpose not randomly. You pick those who have specific qualities or
knowledge that are important for your research. It’s like choosing the right people for the right
questions.
C. Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a way to find people for research through referrals. You start with one
person, and they suggest others like them. Those new people recommend more people, and the
group keeps growing just like a snowball getting bigger as it rolls.
D. Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a way of selecting sample of people or thing from different groups to make
sure the sample represents the overall population. Researchers divide the population into
categories based on characteristics like age, gender, or income. Then, they choose a fixed number
(quota) of participants from each group.
Sample vs Population
Sample is a smaller group chosen from the population for study or research. A sample is a
smaller group chosen from the population to represent it. Researchers study the sample because
it is easier and more practical than studying the whole population.
population means the entire group of people or things that a study is focused on. It could be all
the students in a school or all the customers of a company.
Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a smaller group (sample) from a larger population for study.
Sampling Unit
A sampling unit is a single element or group of elements chosen for sampling. It can be an
individual person, a household, or a business, depending on the study
Sampling Frame
A sampling frame is a list of all possible sampling units from which the sample will be selected.
2 Methods of Sampling
1. Sampling with replacement
In sampling with replacement, each selected item or person is put back into the population
before the next selection. This means the same item can be chosen more than once. This means
that after picking something from a group, you put it back before picking again.
For example, imagine you are picking names from a box, and after picking one name, you put it
back before picking again. This way, the same name could be selected multiple times.
Formula: N n (N is size of population) (n is size of sample)
2. Sampling without replacement
In sampling without replacement, once an item or person is selected, it is not put back into the
population. This means each item can only be chosen once. This means that after picking
something, you do not put it back. So, once an item is chosen, it cannot be picked again.
For example, if you pick names from a box and do not put them back, each name will only
appear once in the sample.
N!
Formula: NCn= (N is size of population) (n is size of sample)
n ! ( N−n ) !
Statistic and Parameter
A statistic is a number that describes a sample (a smaller group taken from a population). We
can say it the characteristics of sample is called statistic.
A parameter is a number that describes the entire population. We can say it the characteristics of
population is called parameter.
Measure Symbol for Statistic Symbol for Parameter
(Sample) (Population)
Number of items n N
Mean
X=
∑X μ=
∑X
Standard Deviation n N
Type equation here .