TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Course Title: Heat Transfer

Topic No.: 5
Topic Title: Convection Heat Transfer
Week No.: 8-9
Number of Hours: 10
Topic Objectives: • Model a boundary layer in convection heat transfer
• Derive equations for mass, momentum and thermal energy
• Perform dimensional analysis and develop correlations for convection heat transfer with
different fluids in laminar and turbulent flow.
• Obtain analytical solutions for typical laminar flow boundary layer equations.
• Apply the analogy between momentum and heat transfer to solve turbulent flow convection
problems
• Characterize the flow behavior over exterior surfaces and bluff bodies and determine the
associated fluid drag and convective heat transfer.
• Analyze the forced convection in cross-flow over multiple tube banks or bundles and predict the
frictional loss and heat transfer coefficient.

Topic Coverage: • The convection boundary layers

• Forced – convection heat transfer
• Free convection

Theory and Discussion

A. Analysis of Convection Heat Transfer
a. Convection Heat Transfer
Before attempting to calculate a heat transfer coefficient, we shall examine the convection
process in some detail and relate the transfer of heat to or from the following fluid. The figure below
shows a heated flat plate cooled by a fluid stream flowing over it.

Also shown are the velocity and temperature distributions that represent this convection situation. The
first point to note is that the velocity decreases in the direction toward the surface as a result of viscous
forces acting in the fluid. Since the velocity of the layer adjacent to the wall is zero, the heat transfer
between the surface and this layer must be by conduction.
𝜕𝑦
𝑞𝑐" = −𝑘𝑓 | = ℎ𝑐 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝜕𝑥𝑦=0
Although this equation suggests that the process can be viewed as conduction, the temperature gradient
at the surface is determined y the rate at which the fluid farther from the wall can transport the energy
into the mainstream. Thus, the temperature gradient at the wall depends on the flow field, with higher
velocities being able to produce larger temperature gradients and higher rates of heat transfer.

b. Boundary Layers Fundamentals

The figure below shows the velocity profiles in Laminar, transition and turbulent boundary layers in
flow over a flat plate.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

In flow over a flat plate, the fluid velocity parallel to the plate can e used to define the shear stress in the
fluid as
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦
Where du/dy is the velocity gradient and the constant of proportionality μ is called dynamic viscosity.

The flow region near the plate where the velocity of the fluid is decreased by viscous forces is called
the boundary layer. The distance from the plate at which the velocity reaches 99% of the free stream
velocity is arbitrarily designated as the boundary layer thickness, and the region beyond this point is
called the undisturbed free stream or potential flow regime.

The dimensionless parameter that quantitatively relates the viscous and inertial forces and whose
value determines the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is the Reynolds Number, Re, which
defined as
𝜌𝑥𝑈 𝑈 𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝑥 = 𝜇 ∞ = ∞ 𝑣
𝜇
Where U∞ free stream velocity; x distance from the leading edge; 𝑣 = 𝜌 kinematic
viscosity of the fluid, 𝜌 density of the fluid. The critical value of the Rex at which transition occurs,
depends on the surface roughness and the level of turbulent activity – the turbulence level- in the
mainstream. When large disturbances are present in the main flow, transition begins when Rex = 105, but
in less disturbed flow fields, it will not start until Rex = 2x105. If the flow is very free from disturbances,
transition may not start until Rex=106.

c. Nusselt Number, Nu
A dimensionless number that relates convective heat transfer and conductive heat transfer is the Nusselt
Number given by the equation:

d. Evaluation of Convection Heat Transfer

Five general methods are available for the evaluation of convection heat transfer coefficients:
1. Dimensional Analysis combined with experiments.
2. Exact mathematical solutions of the boundary layer equations
3. Approximate analysis of the boundary layer equations by integral methods
4. The analogy between heat and momentum transfer
5. Numerical analysis or modeling with Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Methods

e. Dimensional Analysis
e.1) Primary dimensions and Dimensional Formulas
The primary dimensions are Length L, time t, temperature T, and mass M. the dimensional
formula of a physical quantity follows from definitions or physical laws. See table below for the
summary:

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

e.2) Buckingham π Theorem

To determine the number of independent dimensionless groups required to obtain a relation
describing a physical phenomenon, the Buckingham π theorem may be used. According to this rule,
the required number of independent dimensionless groups that can be formed by combining the
physical variables pertinent to a problem is equal to the total number of these physical quantities n
(e.g. density, viscosity, heat transfer coefficient) minus the number of primary dimensions m required
to express the dimensional formulas of the n physical quantities. If we call these groups π1, π2, …. and
so forth, the equation expressing the relationship among variables has a solution of the form
𝐹(𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 , … … . ) = 0
In a problem involving five physical quantities and three primary dimensions, n – m is equal to two
and the solution either has the form 𝐹(𝜋1 , 𝜋2 ) = 0 or 𝜋1 = 𝑓(𝜋2 )
Experimental data for such a case can be presented conveniently by plotting π1 against π2. The
resulting empirical curve reveals the functional relationship between π1 and π2, which cannot be
deduced from dimensional analysis.

e.3) Dimensionless Groups

A simple method for determining dimensionless groups will now be illustrated by applying it to the
problem of correlating experimental convection heat transfer data for a fluid flowing across a heated
tube. The pertinent physical quantities for this case are shown in the table.

There are seven physical quantities and four primary dimensions, so three dimensionless groups will
result.

Equating the exponent for each similar term to zero:

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Setting some appropriate assumptions on the above equations we find the three dimensionless
number as follows:

The first is equivalent to Nusselt number, the second is Reynolds number and the third one is the
Prandtl Number. Thus the equation becomes:

Experimental data now can be correlated in terms of three variables instead of the original seven.
Dimensionless groups of importance for heat transfer and fluid flow is summarized in the table
below:

f. Summary of Equations in flow over a Flat Plate

The table below summarizes the equations used to calculate the heat transfer and friction coefficients
in low-speed flow of gases and liquids over flat or only slightly curved plane surfaces.

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

B. Natural Convection
Natural-convection heat transfer, also referred to as free convection or buoyancy-induced flow with heat
transfer, is the result of fluid motion produced by density inversion.
Summary of Correlations for natural convection heat transfer are summarized in the table below:

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College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Constants for spherical cavity interior:

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College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

C. Forced Convection Inside tubes and Ducts

The process of transferring heat by convection when the fluid flow is driven by an applied pressure
gradient is referred to as forced convection. When this flow is confined in a tube or a duct of any arbitrary
geometrical cross-section, the growth and development of boundary layers are also confined. In such flows,
the hydraulic diameter of the duct, rather than its length, is the characteristic length for scaling the boundary
layer as for dimensionless representation of flow friction loss and the heat transfer coefficient. The rate of heat
transfer at the prevailing temperature difference can be calculated from the equation:
𝑞𝑐 = ℎ𝑐 𝐴(𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 )
The summary of forced convection correlations for incompressible flow inside tubes and ducts are shown in
the table below:

D. Forced Convection Over Exterior Surfaces

The useful correlation equations for determining the average value of the convection heat transfer
coefficients in cross-flow over exterior surfaces are summarized in the table below:

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

When applying an empirical relationship to calculate a convection heat transfer coefficient, the following
sequence of steps should be followed:
1. Collect appropriate physical properties for the fluid in the temperature range of interest.
2. Establish the appropriate geometry for the system and the correct significant length for the Reynolds
and Nusselt numbers.
3. Determine whether the flow is laminar, turbulent, or transitional by calculating the Reynolds number.
4. Determine whether natural-convection effects may be appreciable by calculating the Grashof
number and comparing it with the square of the Reynolds number.
5. Select an appropriate equation that applies to the geometry and flow required. If necessary, iterate
initial calculations of dimensionless parameters in accordance with the stipulations of the equation
selected.
6. Make an order-of-magnitude estimate of the heat transfer coefficient.
7. Calculate the value of the heat transfer coefficient from the equation in step 5 and compare with the
estimate in step 6 to spot possible errors in the decimal point or units.

It should be noted that experimental data on which empirical relations are based generally have been obtained
under controlled conditions in a laboratory, whereas most practical applications occur under conditions that
deviate from laboratory conditions in one way or another. Consequently, the predicted value of a heat transfer
coefficient may deviate from the actual value, and since such uncertainties are unavoidable, it is often satisfactory
to use a simple correlation, especially for preliminary designs.

A special note of caution is in order for the transition regime. The mechanisms of heat transfer and fluid flow
in the transition region, (Re between 2100 and 6000) vary considerably from system to system. In this region,
the flow may be unstable, and fluctuations in pressure drop and heat transfer have been observed. There is
therefore a large uncertainty in the basic heat transfer and flow-friction performance, and consequently, the
designer is advised to design equipment to operate outside this region, if possible; the curves of Fig. 6.28 below
can be used, but the actual performance may deviate considerably from that predicted on the basis of these
curves.

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Illustrative Problems
1. A flat plate solar collector is placed horizontally on a roof as shown in the figure. To determine its efficiency, it is
necessary to calculate the heat loss from its surface to the environment. The collector is a long strip 1 ft wide. The
surface temperature of the collector is 140F. If a wind at 60F is blowing over the collector at a velocity of 10ft/s,
calculate the following quantities at x=1 ft and x = 9ft:
a. Boundary layer thickness
b. Local friction coefficient
c. Average friction coefficient
d. Local drag or shearing stress due to friction
e. Thickness of boundary layer
f. Local convection coefficient of heat transfer
g. Average convection heat transfer coefficient
h. Rate of heat transfer by convection

2. The rating for the small vertical-plate resistance shown in figure is to be determined. Estimate the electrical power
required to maintain the vertical heater surface at 130C in ambient air at 20C. The plate is 15cm high and 10cm wide.
The heat transfer coefficient for radiation is 8.5W/m2-K for the specified surface temperature.

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

3. Calculate the rate of convection heat loss from the top and bottom of a flat, 1-m square, horizontal restaurant grill
heated to 227C in ambient air at 27C. (see figure below)

4. A 20cm diameter steel shaft is heated to 400C for heat treating. The shaft is then allowed to cool in air (at 20C) while
rotating about its own (horizontal axis) at 3rpm. Compute the rate of convection heat transfer from the shaft when it
has cooled to 10C.

5. Water entering at 10C is to be heated to 40C in a tube of 0.02-m-ID at a mass flow rate of 0.01kg/s. The outside of the
tube is wrapped with an insulated electric-heating element that produces a uniform flux of 15,000W/m2 over the
surface. Neglecting any entrance effect, determine
a. The Reynolds number
b. The heat transfer coefficient
c. The length of pipe needed for a 30C increase in average temperature
d. The inner tube surface temperature at the outlet
e. The friction factor
f. The pressure drop in the pipe
g. The pumping power required if the pump is 50% efficient.

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

6. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient and the friction factor for flow of n-butyl alcohol at a bulk temperature
of 293K through a 0.1m x 0.1m square duct, 5m long, with walls at 300K, and an average velocity of 0.03m/s.

7. Determine the rate of convection heat loss from a solar collector panel array attached to the roof and exposed to the
air velocity of 0.5m/s, as shown in figure. The array is 2.5m square, the surface of the collectors is at 70C, and the
ambient air is at 20C.

8. Methane gas at 20C is to be preheated in a heat exchanger consisting of a staggered arrangement of 4-cm-OD tubes, 5
rows deep, with a longitudinal spacing of 6cm and a transverse spacing of 8cm (see figure). Sub-atmospheric pressure
steam is condensing inside the tubes, maintaining the tube wall temperature at 50C. Determine a) the average heat
transfer coefficient for the tube bank and b) the pressure drop through the tube bank. The methane flow velocity is
10m/s upstream of the tube bank.

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Question and Answer

1. Define Reynolds number. Why is it important?
2. Distinguish laminar and turbulent flow in physical sense.
3. How is the boundary-layer thickness define?
4. What is meant by thermal boundary layer?
5. Describe the physical mechanism of convection.
6. What is the hydraulic diameter? When is it used?
7. What is Peclet number?
8. What is Graetz number?
9. What is the form of equation used to calculate heat transfer for flow over cylinder and bluff bodies?
10. Define the Grashof number. What is its physical significance?
11. What is the approximate criterion for transition to turbulence in a free-convection boundary layer?

Assignment
1. A 1kW heater is constructed of a glass plate with an electrically conducting film which produces a constant heat flux.
The plate is 60 x 60 cm and placed in an air stream at 27C, 1 atm with u∞ = 5m/s. calculate the average temperature
difference along the plate and the temperature difference at the trailing edge.

2. Engine oil at 20C is forced over a 20cm square plate at a velocity of 1.2m/s. The plate is heated to a uniform
temperature of 60C. Calculate the heat lost by the plate.

3. Air at 2atm and 200C is heated as it flows through a tube with a diameter of 2.54cm at a velocity of 10m/s. Calculate
the heat transfer per unit length of tube if a constant heat flux condition is maintained at the wall and the wall
temperature is 20C above the air temperature, all along the length of the tube. How much would the bulk temperature
increase over a 3-m length of the tube?

4. A fine wire having a diameter of 3.94x10-5m is placed in a 1-atm airstream at 25C having a flow velocity of 50m/s
perpendicular to the wire. An electric current is passed through the wire raising its temperature to 50C. calculate the
heat loss per unit length.

5. Air at 1 atm and 10C flows across a bank of tubes 15 rows high and 5 rows deep at a velocity of 7m/s measured at
a point in the flow before the air enters the tube bank. The surfaces of the tubes are maintained at 65C. The diameter
of the tubes is 2.54cm; they are arranged in an in-line manner so that the spacing in both the normal and parallel
directions to the flow is 3.81cm. calculate the total heat transfer per unit length for the tube bank and the exit air
temperature.

6. In a plant location near a furnace, a net radiant energy flux of 800W/m2 is incident on a vertical metal surface 3.5m
high and 2m wide. The metal is insulated on the back side and painted black so that all the incoming radiation is lost
by free convection to the surrounding air at 30C. what average temperature will be attained by the plate?

7. A large vertical plate 4m high is maintained at 60Cand exposed to atmospheric air at 10C. Calculate the heat transfer
if the plate is 10m wide.

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 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

8. A fine wire having a diameter of 0.02mm is maintained at a constant temperature of 54C by an electric current. The
wire is exposed to air at 1 atm and 0C. Calculate the electric power necessary to maintain the wire temperature if the
length is 50cm.

9. A Cube, 20cm on a side, is maintained at 60C and exposed to atmospheric air at 10C. Calculate the heat transfer.

10. Two horizontal plates 20cm on a side are separated by a distance of 1cm with air at 1atm in the space. The
temperatures of the plates are 100C for the lower and 40C for the upper plate. Calculate the heat transfer across the
air space.

REFERENCES
“Heat Transfer: Principles and Applications” 7th Edition by F. Kreith, R. Manglik and M. Bohn.

“Heat Transfer” 8th Edition by J. P. Hollman

“A Heat Transfer Textbook” 3rd Edition by John H. Leinhard IV and John H. Leinhard V.

“Schaum’s Outline of Heat Transfer” by Donalds Pitts and G. Laughlin

“Fundamentals of Heat Transfer” by Incropera

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