DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to Almighty God who has been there right from the beginning to this very

point. I also dedicate this work to my ever supportive Mum and Family, for their relentless

support and compassion towards my pursuit for [Link]. Degree in Structural Engineering in

University of Benin.

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I want to say a big thank you to my Mother, Mrs. Patricia Obiagboso, my brothers and sisters

for their caring attitude and support from the beginning of my pursuit for [Link]. Degree in

Structural Engineering to this point.

I also want to express my appreciation to my project supervisor, Engr. (Dr.) Ebuka Nwankwo

for his intellectual support, co-operation and guidance during our work together to achieve a

positive result.

I also want to acknowledge the entire staff of Stefanutti Stock Pty especially Engr. Martins of

concrete section, for the insight he gave to me during my 6 months internship that employ me

to carry out this experiment of sugar on concrete.

I also want to acknowledge the entire staff of Civil/Structural Department University of Benin,

especially Prof. O. Orie and Prof. C. Izinyon for their expertise knowledge, Engr. (Dr.) J. O.

Okovido and Engr. Jonathan for their guideline and lectures, also not forgetting the entire staff

and coordinator of ELA (Engineering Laboratory Practice) especially to Engr. Daniel

Onwasigwe and his co Structural laboratory technologists for their tutors and help at the course

of performing this experimental work.

Also I want to acknowledge all my course mates especially Eghomare Augustine, Odunze

Henry, Okeke Ifeanyi, Onuigbo Joseph and Mordi Chukwudi for their love and support.

May God richly bless you all, amen.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ................................................................................................................................... i

Acknowledgement .....................................................................................................................ii

Table of contents ...................................................................................................................... iii

List of tables .............................................................................................................................. vi

List of figures ...........................................................................................................................vii

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ix

CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.0 Background of study ....................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Problem statement ........................................................................................................... 3

1.2 Research questions .......................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Aim and objectives ......................................................................................................... 5

1.4 Scope of study ................................................................................................................. 6

1.5 Justification ..................................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 8

LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 8

2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 8

2.0.1 STAGES OF CONCRETE PRODUCTION .................................................................. 8

[Link] Batching of Material ............................................................................................................................. 9

[Link] Mixing ................................................................................................................................................. 10
[Link] Transportation ..................................................................................................................................... 11
[Link] Placing................................................................................................................................................. 12
[Link] Compaction ......................................................................................................................................... 14
[Link] Curing ................................................................................................................................................. 15
[Link] Finishing ............................................................................................................................................. 16

iii
2.1 Concrete admixtures ........................................................................................................ 17

2.1.1 Accelerators ........................................................................................................................................... 18

2.1.2 Retarders ................................................................................................................................................ 18
2.1.3 Water proofers ....................................................................................................................................... 19
2.1.4 Workability agents ................................................................................................................................. 19
2.1.5 Surface active agents .............................................................................................................................. 20
2.1.6 Puzzolanas.............................................................................................................................................. 20

2.2 Engineering properties of concrete .................................................................................. 21

2.2.1 Compressive strength of concrete .......................................................................................................... 21

[Link] Compressive strength testing .............................................................................................................. 21
2.2.2 Workability ............................................................................................................................................ 23
[Link] Slump test ............................................................................................................................................ 24
2.2.3 Initial and final setting time of concrete ................................................................................................. 25

2.3 Concrete mix design ........................................................................................................ 28

2.4 Sugar as an admixture for concrete .................................................................................. 31

2.5 Past work on sugar as an admixture for concrete ............................................................ 33

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 39

METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 39

3.0 Sampling of the materials to be used ............................................................................... 40

3.1 Grading of the material to be used ................................................................................... 41

3.2 Preparing the mix design of the concrete grade to work on ............................................ 42

3.3 Batching of materials to be used ...................................................................................... 48

3.4 Mixing of concrete with admixtures and preparing control concrete of one without
admixtures ................................................................................................................................ 49

3.5 Performing a slump test for workability check ................................................................ 50

3.6 Casting and compacting of already mixed concrete ........................................................ 51

3.7 Determination of setting time of cement ......................................................................... 52

iv
3 8 Curing of the concrete cubes casted................................................................................. 53

3.9 Crushing of concrete cubes in compressive machine ...................................................... 54

3.10 Calculating or computing the various compressive strength of the tested cubes .......... 55

3.11 Materials involved ......................................................................................................... 55

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 56

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 56

4.0 Tables and discussion ...................................................................................................... 56

4.1 Observations during experiment ...................................................................................... 64

4.2 Figure charts and discussion ........................................................................................... 66

CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 74

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................................... 74

5.1 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 74

5.2 Recommendations for futher research ............................................................................... 75

REFERENCE ......................................................................................................................... 76

v
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Approximate compressive strength (N/mm2) of concrete mixes made with a free-

water/cement ratio of 0.5. According to BRE, 1997................................................................ 43

Table 3.2 Approximate free-water contents (kg/m3) required to give various levels of

workability. According to BRE, 1997. .................................................................................... 44

Table 4.1 Sieve Analysis results of fine aggregate .................................................................. 56

Table 4.2 Specific Gravity Test for Fine Aggregate ................................................................ 57

Table 4.3 Compressive test results of casted cubes at age 7 days ........................................... 58

Table 4.4 Compressive test results of casted cubes at age 14 days ......................................... 59

Table 4.5 Compressive test results of casted cubes at age 28 days ......................................... 60

Table 4.6 Initial and final setting time results at various percentage of sugar ......................... 61

Table 4.7 Slump test results at various percentage of sugar .................................................... 62

Table 4.8 Summary of effect of sugar on properties of concrete............................................. 63

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Vicat’s apparatus .................................................................................................. 25

Figure 3.1 Showing photos of material sampling at structural laboratory unit, University of

Benin, Nigeria. ......................................................................................................................... 40

Figure 3.2 Showing photos of sieving of coarse aggregate where retained sample between sieve

20mm (top) and 10mm (bottom) is being poured in head pan prior to batching process at

structural laboratory, UNIBEN. ............................................................................................... 41

Figure 3.3 Relationship between standard deviation and characteristic strength. According to

BRE, 1997. ............................................................................................................................... 42

Figure 3.4 Relationship between compressive strength and free-water/cement ratio. According

to BRE, 1997............................................................................................................................ 43

Figure 3.5 Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete. According to BRE, 1997. 45

Figure 3.6 Recommended proportions of fine aggregate according to percentage passing

600μm sieve. According to BRE, 1997……………………………………………………………………………… 45

Figure 3.7: Showing photos of batching process at structural laboratory unit, University of

Benin, Nigeria. ......................................................................................................................... 48

Figure 3.8: Showing photos of mixing process with pan mixer at structural laboratory unit,

UNIBEN. ................................................................................................................................. 49

Figure 3.9: Showing photos of slump test being performed at structural laboratory unit,

University of Benin (UNIBEN), Nigeria ................................................................................. 50

Figure 3.10 Showing photos of casting and compaction of already mixed concrete on vibratory

table at structural laboratory unit, University of Benin, Nigeria ............................................. 51

Figure 3.11 Showing photos of setting time test being performed at structural laboratory unit,

UNIBEN .................................................................................................................................. 52

vii
Figure 3.12 Showing photos of curing process at curing room in structural laboratory unit,

UNIBEN, Nigeria .................................................................................................................... 53

Figure 3.13 Showing photos of compressive strength test being performed with compressive

test machine at structural laboratory unit, University of Benin, Nigeria ................................. 54

Figure 4.1 Particle size distribution curve of fine aggregate…………………………………66

Figure 4.2: Comparison of compressive strength development at various sugar percentage of

weight of cement used with control sample............................................................................. 67

Figure 4.3: 7 days strength of various percentage of sugar ..................................................... 68

Figure 4.4: 14 days strength of various percentage of sugar ................................................... 69

Figure 4.5: 28 days strength of various percentage of sugar ................................................... 70

Figure 4.6: Concrete strength development in various age of concrete ................................... 71

Figure 4.7: Workability (slump) .............................................................................................. 72

Figure 4.8: Setting time of concrete of control with various percentage of sugar ................... 73

viii
 ABSTRACT

Cement and concrete are the most important engineering materials in the construction

industry. Concreting under hot environmental conditions can have adverse effect on the

properties of concrete especially when batching plant is far from the construction site.

Hence retarder admixtures are used on concrete to avoid cold joint in such a case.

This experimental work involves the use of sugar as a retarder admixture for concrete

and its effect on some physical properties of concrete like its setting time, workability

and compressive strength. The mix adopted for the experimentation was 1:2.1:3.9 with

w/c ratio of 0.5 and sugar was added to the concrete at percentages of 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1,

5 and 10. Slump test was conducted for all the batches to check its workability. All the

specimens were water cured for 7 days, 14 days and 28days. The compressive strength

specimens were of dimension 100 x 100 x 100mm. Setting time of the concrete was

also checked using vicat’s apparatus

After 28 days the maximum compressive strength was experienced at 0.05 % of sugar

giving 45.33 N/mm2 which is about 17.2% increase to that of control sample. Also at

0.05% of sugar in concrete there is delay in initial setting time by 80 minutes. The

setting time of concrete increases with increase the percentage of sugar up to 1%.

Beyond 1% use of sugar it is found that the both initial and final setting times drastically

reduces thus reversing its properties as a retarder. Also the workability of concrete

increases at increase in dosage of sugar in concrete.

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Concrete is defined as a composite material composed of aggregates bonded together with fluid

cement that hardens over time. When aggregate is mixed together with dry Ordinary Portland

Cement (OPC) and water, the mixture forms a fluid mass that is easily molded into shape. The

cement react chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a hard matrix that binds

the materials together into a durable stone-like material that is used in various ways today.

These days concrete is being used for wide varieties of purposes to make it suitable in different

conditions. In these conditions ordinary concrete may fail to exhibit the required quality

performance or durability. In such cases. Admixtures is used to modify the properties of

ordinary concrete so as to make it more suitable for any situation.

Until about 1930 additives and admixtures though used, were not considered an important part

of concrete technology. Since then, there has been an increase in the use of admixtures. Though

the use of admixtures and additives is being frowned upon or scorned by some technologists,

there are many on the contrary, who highly commend and foster the use and development of

admixtures as it imparts many desirable characteristics and effect economy in concrete

construction. It should be remembered, however, that admixtures are no substitute for good

concreting practices.

The history of admixtures is as old as the history of concrete. It embraces a very vast field. But

a few type of admixtures called Water Reducers or High Range Water Reducers, generally

referred as plasticizers and superplasticizers, are of recent interest. They are specifically

developed in Japan and Germany around 1970. Later on they were made popular in USA and

Europe even in Middle East and Far East. Unfortunately, the use of admixtures have not

1
become popular in Nigeria. There are many reasons for non-acceptance for wider use of

admixtures in Nigeria. Ninety percent of concreting activities are in the hands of common

builders or Government department who do not generally accept something new. Most

admixtures are not manufactured in Nigeria and they were to be imported, and hence costly.

Lack of education and awareness of the benefits accrued by the use of admixtures, and we were

used to making generally low strength concrete of the type M15 to M30, which do not really

need the use of admixtures.

Also it will be slightly difficult to predict the effect and the results of using admixtures because,

many a time, the change in the brand of cement, aggregate grading, mix proportions and

richness of mix alter the properties of concrete. Sometimes many admixtures affect more than

one property of concrete. At times, they affect the desirable properties adversely. Sometimes,

more than one admixtures is used in the same mix. The effect of more than one admixtures is

difficult to predict. Therefore, one must be cautious in the selection of admixtures and

predicting the effect of the same in concrete.

Retarders can be useful when concreting in hot weather, when the normal setting time of

concrete is shortened by the higher ambient temperature (Neville 2004). Sugar is used in

producing retarders (Shetty 2004).

Sugars have been categorized as ‘cement destroyer’ and when small amounts of sugar (1% by

weight of cement) are added to Portland cement paste at the onset of mixing, hardening may

be delayed indefinitely. The retarding action of sugar is probably by the prevention of the

formation of calcium silicate hydrate.

2
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Nigeria happens to be a developing country and as a result there are several construction

projects going on across the country and concrete plays a major role.

Normally, concrete refers to a mixture of cement, aggregate and water in the right

proportion, however for ages, men have sought to alter the properties of concrete by adding

other substances known as admixtures.

The following are the statement of problem of using concrete admixtures in concrete

technology:

i. Using of concrete admixtures is an evolving concrete technology which have not

been fully adopt in Nigeria owing to difficulty in selection of suitable admixtures

that are easily obtainable

ii. Some of problems encountered by most engineers, builders and technologist in

adopting the use of admixtures in our country Nigeria are difficulty in predicting

the effects of various admixtures on property of concrete

iii. Cautiousness in predicting the concentration amount of various admixtures needed

for a given desirable property in a given construction work still hampers the use of

concrete admixtures in construction

iv. Many engineers, builders and technologist in Nigeria do not generally accept

something new and so they sceptical about using concrete admixtures

v. Lack of education and awareness of the benefits accrued by the use of concrete

admixtures limits its usage in Nigeria

3
 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Admixtures are usually chemicals produced by process that are not environmentally friendly.

As previously stated, it will be slightly difficult to predict the effect and the results of using

admixtures because, many a time, the change in the brand of cement, aggregate grading, mix

proportions and richness of mix alter the properties of concrete.

Sometimes many admixtures affect more than one property of concrete. At times, they affect

the desirable properties adversely. Sometimes, more than one admixtures is used in the same

mix. The effect of more than one admixtures is difficult to predict. Therefore, one must be

cautious in the selection of admixtures and predicting the effect of the same in concrete.

Some of the research questions relating to this work on effect of admixtures on properties of

concrete are as follows:

i. What are some common affordable admixtures engineers, builders and technologist

can find in our country Nigeria at cheaper rate?

ii. What are the effects or benefits of mentioned admixtures on wet concrete?

iii. What are the effects of mentioned admixtures on hardened concrete?

iv. What are the right amount of mentioned admixtures on concrete to attain the

desirable property needed?

v. What are the technology or science behind the mentioned admixtures effects on

concrete strength?

4
 1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this project work is to investigate the strength and properties of concrete when using

sugar as an admixture on concrete through the following objectives;

1. To evaluate the effect of sugar as a retarder admixtures on concrete strength

development

2. To evaluate the effect of sugar as an admixture on the initial and final setting time

of concrete at various percentage dosage of sugar in concrete

3. To evaluate the effect of sugar as an admixtures on wet and hardened concrete

4. To ascertain the benefits accrued by the use of sugar as an admixtures

5. To ascertain the amount of sugar as an admixtures required for a given concrete mix

to attain the desired property needed for the concrete

6. To investigate the economic feasibility of using sugar as a retarder admixture in hot

weather concreting and large scale concrete work

5
 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY

This study investigate the effect of sugar on concrete workability, strength and its setting time

i. Sugar was added to concrete mix at a percentages of 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5 and 10

percentage of the weight of cement per batch of concrete mix.

ii. A water/cement ratio of 0.5 and a mix ratio of 1: 2.1: 3.9 was maintained for the seven

batches.

iii. A structural concrete was made using BRE, 1997 method of mix design.

iv. Slump test was carried out on concrete during mixing process to determine the effects

of sugar on workability of concrete per percentage of sugar with its mass/weight of

cement stated in (i) above.

v. Compressive strength test was conducted on concrete cubes for the seven batches at

water curing (spraying method) ages of 7, 14, and 28 days to determine the strength of

the concrete with sugar admixtures as compared to the control mix.

vi. Setting time test was carried out on cement using the same stated percentage of sugar

stated with its mass/weight of cement.

vii. This research focuses on change in the physical properties with respect to compressive

strength, workability and setting time of concrete when using sugar as an admixture of

concrete.

viii. This research does not focus on effect of water/cement ratio on physical properties of

concrete but on the effect of sugar on concrete properties with respect to its addition to

percentages of cement in weight.

6
 1.5 JUSTIFICATION

This research will help to better understand a solution to the use of sugar to delay setting time

of cement and to enhance the strength of concrete at construction site which is cheap and readily

available, which would help us against making use of other imported concrete admixtures,

thereby boosting the economy of Nigeria.

This research work also seek to investigate the feasibility of using sugar as a retarder admixture

in hot weather concreting and a case where batching plant is a bit far from the construction site.

The result obtained from this study will help civil engineers to minimize cost by substituting

other expensive retarder admixture with sugar, having known the technology and science

behind using sugar as a retarder admixture.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION

Concrete a composite man-made material is the most widely used building material in the

construction industry. It consists of a rationally chosen mixtures of binding material such as

lime or cement, well graded fine and coarse aggregates, water and admixtures (to produce

concrete with special properties). In a concrete mix, cement and water form a paste or matrix

which in addition to filling the voids of the fine aggregate, coats the surface of fine and coarse

aggregates and binds them together. The matrix is usually 22.34% of the total volume. Freshly

mixed concrete before set is known as wet concrete whereas after setting and hardening it is

known as set or hardened concrete. Each of the four constituents has a specific function, the

coarse aggregate acts as a filler. The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the

coarse aggregate. The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the

mixture is aided by the cement paste, fines and nowadays, by the use of admixtures.

2.0.1 STAGES OF CONCRETE PRODUCTION

A rational proportioning of the ingredients of concrete is the essence of the mix design.

However, it may not guarantee of having achieved the objective of the quality concrete work.

The aim of quality control is to ensure the production of concrete of uniform strength from

batch to batch. This requires some rules to be followed in the various stages of concrete

production and are discussed as follows. The stages of concrete production are:

i. Batching or measurement of materials iv. Placing vii. Finishing

ii. Mixing v. Compacting
iii. Transporting vi. Curing

8
[Link] Batching of Material

For good quality concrete, a proper and accurate quality of all the ingredients should be used.

The aggregate, cement and water should be measured with an accuracy of + 3 per cent of batch

quantity and the admixtures by 5 per cent of the batch quantity. There are two prevalent

methods of batching materials, the volume batching and the weigh batching. The factors

affecting the choice of batching method are the size of job, required production rate, and

required standards of batching performance.

Volume batching is generally recommended for small jobs only. The amount of each solid

ingredient is measured by loose volume using standard box known as gauge box. Cement is

always measured by weigh, irrespective of the method of batching. The volume of a bag of

cement (50 kg) is 0.035 m3. The volume of one gauge box is made equal to 0.035m3. Correction

to the effect of bulking of fine aggregate should be made if volume batching is adopted. Since

the density of water is in kg/l, water is measured either in kg or litres.

For most important works weigh batching is recommended. Different types of weigh batchers

are used. For smaller works manual batching is done. Automatic batching plants ranging from

small to large capacity and manually or electrically operated are available. However, they

operate on same principle. By pressing a button the weighing of all the different materials is

put into motion and the flow of each is cut-off when the correct weight is reached. In weigh

batching, water is not added by graduated buckets as the water may spill over during its

addition. A horizontal or vertical tank is fitted to the mixer. The filling is so designed to have

a control to admit any desired quantity of water.

9
[Link] Mixing

The object of mixing is to make the concrete mass homogeneous and uniform in colour and

consistency. All the aggregate particles should have a coat of cement paste and all the

ingredient of concrete should blend into a uniform mass. The mixing is done by

i. Hand mixing or

ii. Machine called mixer.

Hand mixing is used for small jobs. Hand mixing is done over an impervious floor. Measured

quantities of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are spread over the floor in alternate layers.

Then the cement is poured over it and the ingredient ae mixed dry with shovel until uniformity

in colour is achieved. This mix is spread out in thickness of 200 mm and water is sprinkled.

The mix is kept on turning over till a uniform colour is achieved. As the hand mixing cannot

be thorough, it is desirable to add some more cement (10% to cater for the possible inferior

concrete produced by this method.

For quality works, mixing is carried out by mixer. Mixers can be broadly classified as batch

mixers and continuous mixers. The batch mixers produce concrete batch by batch with time

interval, whereas continuous mixers produce concrete continuously till plant is working. Batch

mixers are used for small and medium size work while continuous mixers are used for large

works. Batch mixer may be of pan type or drum type. The drum type may be further classified

as tilting, non- tilting, or reversing type, based on the technique of discharging the mixed

concrete. Truck mounted mixer also known as transit mixers are very popular and have

replaced the dumpers and agitator cars to transport fresh concrete from batching plant to the

site. With the development of twin fin process mixer, the transit mixers have become more

efficient. These mixers in addition to the outer spirals have two opposed inner spirals, the outer

10
spirals convey the mix materials toward the bottom of the drum while the opposed mixing

spirals push the mix towards the feed opening, and the repeated counter current mixing process

is carried out within the mixer drum. A number of special nozzles provided on the lower side

of inner mixing spirals, precisely and uniformly spray water on the mix under pressure along

the entire length of the drum. This results in through mixing of the entire drum contents within

short time. Hence, production of high quality structural concrete in the transit mixer is possible

at the faster rate.

The order of feeding the ingredients into the mixer is as follows:

About 25 per cent of water required for mixing is first introduced into the mixer drum to prevent

any sticking of cement on the blades and bottom of the drum. Then the ingredients are

discharged through the skip. In the skip the sequence of loading should be to add first half the

coarse aggregate, then half the fine aggregate and over this, total cement, and then the balance

aggregates. After discharging the ingredients into the drum he balance water is introduced. The

mixing time is counted from the instant complete water is fed into the mixer.

[Link] Transportation

Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without the loss of

homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing. A maximum of 2 hours from the time of mixing

is permitted if trucks with agitators and 1 hour if trucks without agitators are used for

transporting concrete. Also it should be ensured that segregation does not take place during

transportation and placement. The method adopted for transporting concrete depend upon the

size and importance of the job, the distance of the deposition place from the mixing place, and

the nature of the terrain. Some of the methods of transporting concrete are as below:

11
 a. Mortar pan

b. Wheel Barrow

c. Chutes

d. Dumper

e. Bucket and Ropeway

f. Belt conveyor

g. Skip and hoist

h. Transit mixer

i. Pumping

[Link] Placing

To achieve quality concrete, it should be placed with utmost care securing the homogeneity

achieved during mixing and the avoidance of segregation in transporting. Research has shown

that a delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate compressive strength provided

the concrete can be adequately compacted. For dry mixes in hot weather, delay of half to one

hour is allowed whereas for wet mixes in cold weather, it may be several hours. The various

situations in which concrete is placed are discussed below.

i. For foundations, concrete foundations for walls and columns are provided

below the ground surface. Before placing the concrete in the foundation all the

loose earth, roots of tree, etc., are removed, if the surface is found dry, it is made

wet so that earth does not absorb water from concrete. On the other hand, if the

foundation is wet, the water and mud is removed and cement is sprinkled before

placing concrete.

12
ii. For Beams, Columns, and Slabs, before placing the concrete, the forms must

be examined for correct alignment. They should be adequately rigid to withstand

the weight of concrete and construction load without undue deformation. Forms

should be light enough to avoid any loss of mortar resulting in honeycombed

concrete. The insides of the forms should be cleaned and oiled before use to

avoid any sticking of concrete with the forms and making their stripping off

difficult. Concrete should not be dropped but placed in position to prevent

segregation. It should be dropped vertically from as small height as possible. It

should be placed at one point in formwork and allowed to flow side ways to take

care of honeycombing. The reinforcement should be checked for tightness and

clean surface. The loose rust or scales if any, are removed by wire brush. Paint,

oil and grease if found should be removed. The minimum cover for

reinforcement should be checked before concreting.

iii. Concrete is laid in bays for highway, Runway, Shallow drainage, or Floor

slabs. First, the ground on which concrete is to laid is prepared and all loose

materials and grass etc., are removed. The earth is wetted and compacted. The

subgrades over which the concrete is to be laid should be properly compacted

and damped to avoid any loss of moisture from concrete. Concrete is then laid

in alternate bays. This allows the concrete to undergo sufficient shrinkage and

cracks do not develop afterwards. Concrete is not placed in heap at one place

and then dragged, instead it is placed in uniform thickness.

13
[Link] Compaction

After concrete is placed at the desired location, the next step in the process of concrete

production is its compaction. Compaction consolidates fresh concrete within the moulds or

formworks and around embedded parts and reinforcement steel. Considerable quantity of air is

entrapped in concrete during its production and there is possible partial segregation also. Both

of these adversely affect the quality of concrete. Compaction of the concrete is the process to

get rid of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of segregation occurred and to form a

homogeneous dense mass. It has been found that 5 per cent voids in hardened concrete reduce

the strength by over 30 per cent and 10 per cent voids reduce the strength by over 50 per cent.

Therefore, the density and consequently the strength and durability of concrete largely depend

upon the degree of compaction. For maximum strength, driest possible concrete should be

compacted 100 per cent.

The compaction of concrete can be achieved by the following methods:

i. Hand compaction (achieved by rodding, ramming, or tamping)

ii. Compaction by vibration (e.g. use of needle vibrator, formwork vibrator, table

or platform vibrator, and surface vibrators)

iii. Compaction by spinning (also known as centrifugation)

iv. Compaction by jolting

v. Compaction by rolling (use of rubber rollers)

14
[Link] Curing

Cement gains strength and hardness because of the chemical action between cement and water.

This chemical reaction requires moisture, favourable temperature and time referred to as the

curing period. Curing of freshly placed concrete is very important for optimum strength and

durability. The major part of the strength in the initial period is contributed by the clinker

compound C3S and partly by C2S, and is completed in about three weeks. The later strength

contributed by C2S is gradual and takes long time. As such, sufficient water should be made

available to concrete to allow it to gain full strength. The process of keeping concrete damp for

this purpose is known as curing. The object is to prevent the loss of moisture from concrete

due to evaporation or any other reason, supply additional moisture or heat and moisture to

accelerate the gain of strength. Curing must be done for at least three weeks and in no case for

less than ten days. Approximately 14 litres of water is required to hydrate each bag of cement.

Soon after concrete is placed, the increase in strength is very rapid (3 to 7 days) and slowly

thereafter for an indefinite period. Concrete moist cured for 7 days is about 50 per cent stronger

than that which is exposed to dry air for the entire period. If the concrete is kept damp for one

month, the strength is about double than that of concrete exposed only to dry air.

Concrete may be kept moist by a number of ways. The methods consist in either supplying

additional moisture to concrete during early hardening by ponding, spraying, sprinkling, etc.

or by preventing loss of moisture from concrete by sealing the surface of concrete by membrane

formed by curing compound. Following are some of the prevalent methods of curing:

i. Water curing
ii. Steam curing
iii. Chemical curing
iv. Electrical curing
v. Curing by infra-Red Radiation

15
[Link] Finishing

Concrete is basically used because of its high compressive strength. However, the finish of the

ultimate product is not that pleasant. In past couple of decades, efforts have been made to

develop surface finishes to give a better appearance to concrete surface and are as follows.

a. Formwork finishes: Concrete takes up the shape of the form. A variety of looks

can be had to the architects’ imagination. By careful preparation of formwork,

proper mix design and good workmanship smooth surfaces can be achieved.

Prefabrication units can be produced to a fine finish.

b. Surface Treatments: The type of surface treatment depends upon the purpose for

which the concrete surface is to be used. For example a pavement surface should be

plane but with sufficient roughness to exhibit skid resistance. The concrete after

levelling is rocked, broomed or scratched to make the surface rough

c. Applied Finishes: The exterior surfaces of concrete elements can be modified to

give a pleasant look. The concrete surface is roughened, cleaned and wetted. Over

this a cement mortar of ratio 1:3 is applied. This mortar rendering can be given a

number of surface finishes such as sand facing, rough cast finish, pebble dash etc.

16
2.1 CONCRETE ADMIXTURES

Admixtures are the materials other than the three basic ingredients of cement concrete (cement,

aggregate and water) added to the concrete mix before or during mixing to improve certain of

its properties in fresh or hardened state. The properties commonly modified are rate of

hydration or setting time, workability, dispersion and air entrainment.

Many admixtures affects more than one property of concrete and although they may enhance

some, they may adversely affect some others. An admixture should be employed only after an

appropriate evaluation of its effects on concrete. A degree of control must also be exercised to

ensure proper quantity of admixture.

The functions of admixtures are to accelerate the initial set of concrete, i.e., to speed up the rate

of development of strength at early ages, retard the initial set, increase the strength of concrete,

improve workability, reduce heat of evolution, increase durability of concrete – resistance to

freezing and thawing, control expansion caused by aggregate-alkali reaction, decrease capillary

flow of water and to make it impermeable, increase the penetration and pumpability of

concrete, reduce segregation in grouts, strengthen the bond between old and new concrete

surfaces and that between steel reinforcement and concrete, inhibit corrosion of concrete,

increase resistance to chemical attack, produce coloured and cellular concrete, produce

concrete of fungicidal, germicidal and insecticidal properties, and produce non-skid concrete

surfaces. According to these various mentioned functions admixtures may be classified as:

a. Accelerators
b. Retarder
c. Water proofers
d. Workability agents
e. Surface active agents
f. Puzzolanas

17
2.1.1 Accelerators

They normally reduce the setting time, accelerate the rate of hydration of cement and

consequently the rate of gain of strength. The examples of accelerators are sulphates with an

exception of calcium sulphate, alkali carbonates aluminates and silicates, aluminium chloride,

calcium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium and potassium hydroxides, calcium formate,

formaldehyde, para formaldehyde, etc.

Some substances may act as accelerators or as retarders according to the proportion added.

For example, CaCl2 when added up to 2 per cent by weight of cement acts as accelerator, but

on increasing the proportion, it acts as retarder and leads to flash set. Similarly, triethanolamine

when added in proportion less than 0.06 per cent by weight of cement acts as an accelerator

but acts as retarder if the dosage is increased. CaCl2 and NaCl are very useful to permit

concreting in very cold weather (–23°C). These lower the temperature at which freezing takes

place, help to keep the mixture warm by accelerating the generation of heat, and increase the

ability of the concrete to resist frost by speeding up the rate of gain of strength.

2.1.2 Retarders

They normally increase the setting time and thus delay the setting of cement. Since these reduce

the rate of hydration, more water is available and better is the workability. Retarders increase

the compressive strength under freezing and thawing. Calcium sulphate, sugar, starch,

cellulose, ammonium, ferrous and ferric chlorides, sodium hexametaphosphate, lignosulphonic

acid and their salts, carbohydrates, hydrocarboxylic acids and their salts are a few examples of

retarders. The use of CaSO4 as retarder has already been mentioned in the manufacture of

cement where it prevents the flash set. An addition of 0.2 per cent sugar by mass retards the

hydration of cement to such an extent that the final set may not take place even for 72 hours. It

has also been found that an addition of 0.1 per cent sugar by mass of cement raises the strength

18
of cement at 3 days and increases the 28 days strength by 30 per cent. Retarders are very

important in the situations where grouting is to be done for the voids behind the concrete arch,

tunnel lining, etc. These also ensure a better bond between successive lifts in concrete

constructions. These are very useful, particularly in composite construction where the steel

rolled-sections have to carry the load of concrete before the latter is capable of acting as a

compression member.

Also, with retarders, the concrete can be mixed by using hot water or injecting steam and it has

been found that 28 days strength of concrete is not affected as is the case with normal

accelerated curing.

2.1.3 Water proofers

Cement mortar or concrete should be impervious to water under pressure and also should have

sufficient resistance to absorption of water. The concrete can be made water resistant with the

additives which may be water repellent type or pore filling type. But, the ultimate aim is to

produce concrete impervious to water. The examples of water repellent materials such as soda

and potash soaps are chemically active, whereas calcium soaps, resin, vegetable oil, fats, waxes

and coal tar residue are the examples of chemically inactive materials. The examples of pore

filling materials are alkaline silicates and notably silicate of soda, aluminium and zinc sulphate

and aluminium and calcium chlorides.

2.1.4 Workability agents

They increase the workability by increasing the amount of paste in concrete and hence the

cohesiveness. However, if used in excess, the quantity of water has to be increased which

causes cracking and loss of strength. Lime, bentonite, kaolin, chalk, diatomaceous earth are a

few examples of workability agents.

19
2.1.5 Surface active agents

They reduce the surface tension and are commonly known as air entraining agents. An addition

of 5 per cent of air may increase the compacting factor by 0.07 and a corresponding increase

of slump: 12 to 50 mm. Following are some of the examples of air entraining agents:

a. Natural wood resins and their soaps, of which vinsol resin is the best.

b. Animal or vegetable fats and oils such as tallow or olive oil and their fatty acids such

as stearic acid and oleic acids and their soaps.

c. Wetting agents such as alkali salts of sulphonated or sulphated organic compounds. A

well-known trade material is Darex. Other trade names of this category are N. Tair,

Airalon, Orvus, Teepol, Petrosan and Cheecol.

2.1.6 Puzzolanas

They are siliceous materials which are themselves inactive but react, in the presence of water,

with lime to form compounds having cementitious properties. The examples of puzzolana are

lime, fly ash, burnt clay and blast furnace slag. Puzzolanas react with free lime in cement and

improve the durability of concrete, and reduce the rate of hardening of concrete, which is the

principal objection to its use.

20
2.2 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

The various engineering properties of concrete are as follows.

i. Compressive strength of concrete

ii. Workability

iii. Initial and final setting time of concrete

2.2.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The most useful property of concrete is its compressive strength. However, it is weak in

tension. Till date no relation exists between compressive, tensile, bending and shear strengths

of concrete. However, it may be mentioned here that typically the tensile and bending strength

of the concrete are of the order of 10 and 15 percent, respectively of the compressive strength.

The shear is approximately 20 percent of the uniaxial compressive strength.

Testing plays an important role in controlling the quality of cement concrete work. Systematic

testing of the raw materials, the fresh concrete and the hardened concrete is inseparable part of

any quality control programme for concrete which helps to achieve higher efficiency of the

materials used and grater assurance of the performance of the concrete in regards to both

strength and durability.

[Link] Compressive strength testing

Cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate to be used for making concrete are brought to

room temperature before commencing the test. The ingredients are weighed in the ratio to be

used and are mixed by hand mixing or by machine mixing. First, the cement and sand are mixed

thoroughly till a uniform colour is achieved. The coarse aggregate are then added and mixed

21
till these are distributed uniformly throughout the mix. The water is then added and if necessary

admixtures and the entire batch mixed until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and has

the desired consistency.

The test specimens recommended are 150 x 150 x 150 mm cubes or cylinders of 150 mm

diameter and 300 mm height. The mixed concrete is filled into the moulds in layers of 50 mm

to achieve full compaction. Each layer of mix so placed is tamped with bar 16 mm in diameter

and 600 mm long, 35 times or with a vibrator. The test specimens are stored at room

temperature and at 90 percent humidity for 24 hours from the time of addition of water to the

dry ingredients. After this period the specimens are removed from the moulds and placed in

water and kept there until taken out just prior to test. Normally, the recognized age of test of

specimen is 3, 7 and 28 days. At least three specimen are tested at each selected age.

The specimen is placed between the platens of the compressive testing machine with care that

the axis of the specimen is aligned with the centre of thrust of the spherically seated platen.

The compression testing machine should be able to apply gradual load of 14 N/mm2 per minute

until the specimen is crushed.

Compressive strength = (Maximum load / Cross-sectional Area of the cube)

The average of the three specimen tested is taken as the compressive strength of concrete of

the batch provided the individual variation is not more than 15 percent of the average.

The cube of 100 x 100 x 100 mm is also recommended provided the aggregate size does not

exceed 19 mm.

22
2.2.2 WORKABILITY

Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with

the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends

on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level

of hydration) and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer.

Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability.

Excessive water leads to increased bleeding or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and

aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an

aggregate blend with an undesirable gradation can result in a very harsh mix design with a very

low slump, which cannot readily be made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts

of water. An undesirable gradation can mean using a large aggregate that is too large for the

size of the formwork, or which has too few smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps

between the larger grades, or using too little or too much sand for the same reason, or using too

little water, or too much cement, or even using jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round

aggregate such as pebbles. Any combination of these factors and others may result in a mix

which is too harsh, i.e., which does not flow or spread out smoothly, is difficult to get into the

formwork, and which is difficult to surface finish.

Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simple measure of the plasticity of

a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is

normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete.

The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled

in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to consolidate

the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain amount,

owing to gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one or

23
two inches (25 or 50 mm) out of one foot (305 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may

slump as much as eight inches. Workability can also be measured by the flow table test.

Slump can be increased by addition of chemical admixtures such as plasticizer or

superplasticizer without changing the water-cement ratio. Some other admixtures, especially

air-entraining admixture, can increase the slump of a mix.

High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring

methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing

how the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted. After mixing, concrete is a

fluid and can be pumped to the location where needed.

[Link] Slump test

The mould used for the test specimen has the following: - The internal dimensions of the mould

are bottom diameter = 200 mm, top diameter = 100 mm, and height = 300 mm. The mould is

filled in with fresh concrete in four layers, each approximately one-quarter of the height and

tamped with twenty-five strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod. The strokes are

distributed in a uniform manner over the cross-section and for the second and subsequent layers

should penetrate into the underlying layer. The bottom layer is tamped throughout its depth.

After the top layer has been rodded, the concrete is struck off level with a trowel or the tamping

rod, so that the mould is exactly filled. The mould is removed immediately by raising it slowly

and carefully in a vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the slump is

measured immediately by determining the difference between the height of the mould and that

of the highest point of the specimen being tested. The slump measured is recorded in terms of

millimeters of subsidence of the specimen

24
2.2.3 INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIME OF CONCRETE

When water is added to cement, the resulting paste starts to stiffen and gain strength and lose

the consistency simultaneously. The term setting implies solidification of the plastic cement

paste. Initial and final setting times may be regarded as the two stiffening states of the cement.

The beginning of solidification, called the initial set, marks the point in time when the paste

has become unworkable. The time taken to solidify completely marks the final set, which

should not be too long in order to resume construction activity within a reasonable time after

the placement of concrete. Vicat’s apparatus used for the purpose is shown in the picture below.

Figure 2.1. Vicat’s apparatus

25
The initial setting time may be defined as the time taken by the paste to stiffen to such an extent

that the Vicat’s needle is not permitted to move down through the paste to within 5 ± 0.5 mm

measured from the bottom of the mould. The final setting time is the time after which the paste

becomes so hard that the angular attachment to the needle, under standard weight, fails to leave

any mark on the hardened concrete. Initial and final setting times are the rheological properties

of cement.

It is important to know the initial setting time, because of loss of useful properties of cement

if the cement mortar or concrete is placed in moulds after this time. The importance of final

setting time lies in the fact that the moulds can be removed after this time. The former defines

the limit of handling and the latter defines the beginning of development of mechanical

strength.

The factors influencing the setting properties of cement are its composition, the percentage of

retardant, degree of calcination, fineness of grinding, aeration subsequent to grinding clinker,

percentage of water used to make cement paste, the temperature of the mixing water, cement

and the atmosphere where the cement paste is placed, and the amount of manipulation the paste

receives.

The effect of lime, silica and alumina in controlling the set play an important role. The effect

of gypsum is to increase the setting time of freshly ground cement. It is usually mixed with the

clinker before final grinding, or just after the clinker has received preliminary grinding. The

addition of gypsum before calcination causes it to decompose into lime and sulphur trioxide.

Since the latter is liberated in the kiln, there is resulting effect on the setting time. Often, an

under limed cement becomes quick setting after seasoning. This can be avoided by adding to

the cement 1 or 2 per cent of hydrated lime or the fraction of a per cent of Plaster of Paris.

Setting time of cement is rapid with the increase in the fineness of cement.

26
When the mixing water used in testing cement paste is increased by 1 per cent above that

required for normal consistency, an increase of about 30 minutes or more is observed in the

initial or final set.

Cements stored in warm rooms will, in general, be quick setting than those stored in cold

places. Cold mixing water retards set while warm water accelerates it. Cement exposed to

thoroughly saturated atmosphere will set much more slowly than those exposed to a dry

atmosphere. If, however, a considerable proportion of moist CO2 is present in the air, the setting

time is found to reduce greatly. By lengthening the time of mixing and by prolonged trowelling

of the surface mortars, it is also possible to considerably delay the setting time.

27
2.3 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Concrete mix design may be defined as the art of obtaining a concrete of the required

properties, at the lowest cost, by a suitable choice and proportions of available materials.

Needless to say, a properly designed concrete mix for the specified strength requirements

should have the minimum cement content to make the mix economical. It should, however, be

stressed that the precise relationship falls between the properties of concrete and the specific

characteristics of the mix such as water-cement ratio, aggregate-cement ratio and grading, apart

from such elusive qualities as aggregate-particle shape and texture. Hence, concrete mix design

cannot be mechanically done and is likely to remain an art, rather than a science, for some time

to come.

The data used in selecting mix proportion should be expected merely to serve as a guide; they

should be backed up by personal experience and a knowledge of the basic principles of concrete

mix design. Nevertheless, their use is only the first state in designing a mix, and should be

followed, invariably, by the making of trial mixes. Based upon the observations made on trial

mixes the mix proportions have to be adjusted and the refinements carried to the stage where

the optimum proportions have been attained.

To sum up, concrete mix design is still very much a problem of trial-and-error, and any

calculations based on design data are really only a means of providing, at best, a starting point

so that the first tests can be conducted. Of course, the hardened concrete should ultimately have

the required strength, durability and surface finish.

The fundamental object in proportioning concrete or mortar mixes is the production of a

durable material of requisite strength, water tightness, and other essential properties at

minimum cost. To achieve these objectives, careful attention must be given to the selection of

cement, aggregate, and water to the following considerations:

28
 i. The mix must be workable so that it can be placed and finished without undue labour.

ii. Since cement is the most costly ingredient in the mix, the proportion used should be as

small as is consistent with the attainment of desired properties. Within wide limits,

experiments have shown:

a. The strength and degree of water tightness of mixes, having like constituent materials,

density, and workability, increase with the cement content.

b. With the cement content, materials, and workability all constant, the strength and degree

of water tightness increase with the density of the mix.

c. For usual methods of placement, the strength and degree of water tightness of well-cured

concrete and mortar are greatest when the mix is plastic (has a slump of approximately 50

mm). Drier mixes, although frequently as strong, are likely to be porous unless compacted

by pneumatic rammers or electrically driven vibrators. Increasing the water content

beyond that required for plasticity causes the strength to decrease rapidly.

d. Concrete with 4–7 per cent, by volume, entrained air made by using an air-entraining

cement or by adding air-entraining admixtures is more resistant to freezing and thawing

action and also to scaling due to the use of salt for ice removal than concrete made with

regular cement and without air-entraining admixtures. In addition to the above, the

following statements appear to be justified by the results of experience and tests:

e. To proportion concrete for the maximum resistance to fire, a porous non-combustible

aggregate of high specific heat together with cement sufficient to provide the requisite

strength should be thoroughly mixed and placed with as little ramming as possible to

produce a porous concrete.

f. In proportioning concrete or mortar which is to be subjected to freezing temperatures

shortly after placement, a minimum amount of water and a quick-setting cement should be

used.

29
g. Concrete for road construction should be made from a carefully graded, hard tough

aggregate bound together with as small a proportion of rich mortar as is consistent with

the required workability, strength, and imperviousness. In locations where resistance to

freezing and thawing is required, the concrete should have 3–6 per cent of entrained air.

The principal methods used in scientific proportioning of mixes are based upon relationships

between properties and ratio of cement to voids in the mix, or on the relationship between

properties and the ratio of water to cement in the mix.

30
2.4 SUGAR AS AN ADMIXTURE FOR CONCRETE

Sugar is a carbohydrate, a substance composed of only carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Sucrose,

fructose, dextrose, lactose and other ‘Oses’ are members of this chemical class. It occurs in

sugar cane and sugar beet. The basic unit of carbohydrate is a linear chain of four to seven

carbon atoms with a hydroxyl group on each one, the terminal carbon being an aldehyde.

Owing to the retardation of ordinary Portland cement, sugar falls into three categories: non-

retarding, good retarders and most effective retarders. The non-reducing sugars, methyl

glucoside and trehalose, are effectively non-retarding; the reducing sugars, glucose; maltose,

lactose and cello Boise, are grouped together as good retarders, while the non-reducing sugars

(which have a five-member ring) sucrose and Raffi nose are far the most effective retarders.

Sugars have been categorized as ‘cement destroyer’ and when small amounts of sugar (1% by

weight of cement) are added to Portland cement paste at the onset of mixing, hardening may

be delayed indefinitely. The retarding action of sugar is probably by the prevention of the

formation of calcium silicate hydrate.

A delay in the setting of cement paste can be achieved by adding a retarder to the concrete mix.

Retarders generally slow down the hardening of the cement paste by stopping the rapid set

shown by tricalcium aluminate but do not alter the composition of hydration products (Neville

2006; Lea 1988).

The delay in setting of the cement paste can be exploited to produce architectural finish of

exposed coarse aggregate (Neville 2006). Sugar, carbohydrate derivatives and some salts

exhibit retarding action (Neville 2006; Lea 1988; Ramachandran et al. 1993).

Sugar belongs to the type of retarders that can hold up setting and hardening indefinitely and

Forsén called them ‘cement destroyers’ (Lea 1988).

It is believed that retarders modify crystal growth or morphology, becoming absorbed on

rapidly formed membrane of hydrated cement and slowing down the growth of calcium

31
hydroxide nuclei thus forming a more efficient barrier to further hydration than is the case

without a retarder (Neville 2004).

The retarder is believed to be finally removed from solution by being incorporated into the

hydrated material without necessarily forming different complex hydrates (Young 1972).

Retarders can be useful when concreting in hot weather, when the normal setting time of

concrete is shortened by the higher ambient temperature (Neville 2004). Sugar is used in

producing retarders (Shetty 2004).

Commercial lignosulfonates used in admixture formulations are predominantly calcium-

sodium based with sugar content of 1-30% (Rixom and Mailvaganam 2007). Molasses

(sugar) as a retarder has been used in the England- France channel construction in the early

1990s to prevent the setting of residual concrete since washing out underground was no

possible (Neville 2006).

However, Portland cement concrete without special treatment has been known to be attached

by sugar solutions. Light refined molasses are stated to have a more aggressive action than dark

molasses on concrete (Lea 1988).

32
2.5 PAST WORK ON SUGAR AS AN ADMIXTURE FOR CONCRETE

(Bazid et al, 2002) investigated the effect of pure sugar on setting time of various types of

cement. The investigation concluded that setting time of cement was retarded by incorporation

of sugar in cement under all conditions of curing. The extension in setting time was increasing

with an increase in sugar content up to a certain limit (approximately 0.15%) and then started

to drop with further increase in sugar content, accelerated the cement-setting when a higher

sugar content (>0.3%) was used. Relatively low retarding tendency was shown by sugar under

the second and third curing condition. 0.15% sugar-content acted as optimum sugar content for

retarding the setting time.

(Thomas et al., 1983), carried out an investigation on retarding action of sugars on

hydration of cement. It has been proven that sugar interferes, with the cement binding process

in the concrete. A theory suggests that when concrete mixture contains sugar, the sugar

molecules attach themselves to the hydrating cement and inhibit the chemical reactions

involved in stiffening the material.

(Bazid et al., 2002) also observed that a retarding admixture causes cement set retardation by

the following mechanisms:

a. Adsorption of the retarding compound on the surface of cement particles, forming a

protective skin, which slows down hydrolysis.

b. Adsorption of the retarding compound onto nuclei of calcium hydroxide, poisoning

their growth, which is essential for continued hydration of cement after the end of

induction period.

c. Formation of complexes with calcium ions in solution, increasing their solubility and

discouraging the formation of the nuclei of calcium hydroxide.

33
 d. Precipitation around cement particles of insoluble derivatives of the retarding

compounds formed by reaction with highly alkaline aqueous solution, forming a

protective skin.

(Erdogan, 1997) reported that retarding admixtures are mainly based on materials having

ligsulfonic acids and their salts, hydroxyl carboxylic acids and their salts, sugar and their

derivatives and inorganic salts such as borates, phosphates, zinc and lead salts.

Previous studies investigated the use of pure sugar as a retarding admixture, on various types

of cements.

(Otunyo et al., 2015) carried out an exploratory study on the effect of sugar cane juice on

concrete properties such as bulk density, setting time, workability and compressive strength.

The study established that setting time was delayed by the partial replacement of water with

sugar cane juice. Slump values decreased as the content of sugar cane juice increased in the

mix. Compressive strength of the concrete decreased from 39.0 N/mm2 at 0% sugar cane juice:

100% water to 13.08 N/mm2 at 100% sugar cane juice: 0% water. The study also established

that at 25% sugar cane juice: 75% water replacement, setting time was as much as 42 hours

(almost 2 days).

(Oyekan, 2007) Successfully worked on improving the compressive strength of concrete

block by the addition of sugar. 0.1% sugar content (by weight of cement) increased the

compressive strengths of the blocks by nearly 17% at 28 days. At 0.2% sugar content (by

weight of cement) the 28 – day strength of the blocks was increased by only 9% but the 14-day

strengths of the blocks was increased by 56.6%.

34
(Akogu, 2011) carried out a successful work on sugar at concentration of 0.05% by weight

of sugar content were taken on the cement past with C33 concrete curing at 3,7,14,and 28 days

was investigated by use of ordinary Portland cement. The compressive strength test results

show some marginal strength gains at all ages but peaks at 11.84% at 3 days at 0.05%

sugar content.

(Giridhar, 2013) based on the test results, as percentage of admixture increases from 0 to

0.1% that compressive strength of concrete also increased. Maximums strength of concretes

was related on workability of concrete and its can be achieved by high degrees of workability.

The compressive strengths of concretes measured for both admixtures after 7 and 28 days.

After 28 days, the percentages of variations between the ordinary concrete and concrete

with 0.1% of sugar added as admixture was 12.0%.

(Duggal, 2008) commented on his book ( Building Materials, page 297) that an addition of 0.2

per cent sugar by mass retards the hydration of cement to such an extent that the final set may

not take place even for 72 hours. That it has also been found that an addition of 0.1 per cent

sugar by mass of cement raises the strength of cement at 3 days and increases the 28 days

strength by 30 per cent

(IJATER, 2015) concluded that when sugar is mixed with concrete.

i. The setting time of concrete increase sugar with increase the percentage of sugar.

ii. Workability increases with increase the percentage of sugar.

iii. The compressive strength increases 16.02% at 28 days at 0.06% of mass of cement as

compared to ordinary concrete.

35
(Arpana et al., 2017) concluded thus from the result they obtained, it is clear that a change in

the properties of concrete takes place. When sugar is mixed with concrete.

i. The setting time of concrete increases with increase the percentage of sugar up to 0.06%.

Beyond 0.06% use of sugar it is found that the both initial and final setting times

drastically reduces. Sugar when used in correct proportion acts as retarder. Sugar content

of 0.06% by weight of cement can improve compressive strength of concrete by 14.64

N/mm2 at 28 days and delay initial setting time by 45 minutes 45 seconds.

ii. No adverse effect on concrete and cement paste have been observed at this level of sugar

concentration (0.06%) for the concrete cubes studied.

iii. The delay in setting of concrete at this level of sugar content (0.06%) could be useful in

preventing cold joints and in reducing early setting of cement in hot weather concreting.

iv. Sugar above 0.08% by weight of cement accelerated the setting time with nominal gain

in initial strength. Excessive volume expansion was noted in the sample as cracks were

formed in the sample itself.

v. So a careful use of sugar can be economical in comparison to commercially available set

retarder.

(Yogesh, 2015) has inspected about on impact of sugar powder on Strength of cement. Sugar

powder content is 0, 0.05, 0.075, 0.1, 0.15, and 0.2 % by weight of cement. Every one of the

examples was water cured and testing is improved the situation 3 days, 7 days and 28 days.

The measure of sugar powder 0.1% of the aggregate weight of cement gives expanded

introductory and last setting time. The measure of sugar powder 0.1% of the aggregate weight

of cement gives enhanced outcomes in compressive strength. The compressive strength of

cement and concrete is expanded up to 15 - 20%.

36
(Ganesan, 2015) has learned about exploratory investigations on strength of concrete by

somewhat supplant cement with sugarcane stick bagasse fiery debris. The examination

program incorporated the incomplete replacement of cement by bagasse powder by 10%, 15%

and 20% and found that expansion in compressive strength and flexural strength of RC concrete

for 15 % replacement of cement with bagasse slag.

(Kumar, 2015) has perform about effect of Sugar, Jaggery and Sugar Cane Ash on Properties

of Concrete. The admixtures (sugar and jaggery) are incorporated into concrete at the

estimation levels of 0, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1% with 5.10,15, 20, 25% Ash is and cement up to 15%

to improve the distinctive properties of concrete. Collapse of slump was seen in both the

admixtures at a measurements of 0.1%. Workability increments when the measurement of

admixture was increased. Compressive strength of concrete improves when dose of admixture

is expanded. He concluded that:

a. The slump demonstrates that the workability increments with the expansion in the rates

of sugar cane juice. Workability increments when the measurements of admixture was

expanded.

b. Jaggery as admixture, gives preferable strength esteems over the Sugar Segregation and

bleeding was less, Setting time of the increments as the measurements of admixture was

expanded.

c. Compressive Strength at 7, 14, 28 and 50 days are higher than with the utilization as

admixture 0.1% and 0.2% of piece jaggery and lower than 0.3% and 0.4% of jaggery

appear differently in relation to different synthesis cube cases for M30 of concrete.

37
d. Flexure strength has expanded contain jaggery with 0.1 and 0.2 % and abatement with

0.3 and 0.4% of contain jaggery. Contrast with typical cement with the M-30 review

other jaggery structure with the age of 28 days.

e. Tensile strength has increment 0.1% contain jaggery as admixture and reduction with

0.3 and 0.4% of contain jaggery with M-30 review of solid contrast with ordinary

concrete and other jaggery structure with the age of 28 days.

38
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY
The study involves;

a. Sampling of the materials to be used

b. Grading of the materials to be used

c. Preparing the mix design of the concrete grade to work on

d. Batching of materials to be used

e. Mixing of concrete with admixtures and preparing control concrete of

one without admixtures

f. Performing of slump test for workability check

g. Casting and compacting of already mixed concrete

h. Determination of setting time of cement

i. Curing of the concrete cubes casted

j. Crushing of concrete cubes in compressive machine

k. Calculating or computing the various compressive strength of the tested

cubes.

39
3.0 SAMPLING OF THE MATERIALS TO BE USED

If bulk samples are supplied, take subsamples for the test portions in accordance with the

relevant British Standard, ensuring that the materials used in each batch of concrete are

representative of the bulk materials. Spray the fine and coarse aggregate on dry surface for at

least 2 to 3 days to air dried at 20 ± 5 °C; so as to attain uniformity of the bulk samples for

accurate results during testing. Where required, samples shall be accompanied by a certificate

of sampling in accordance with the relevant British Standard. Otherwise, use the materials in

the proportions supplied or specified for the mix.

For cements and admixtures, upon their arrival at the laboratory, store the materials in separate

airtight containers of appropriate size in a dry place. Before use, thoroughly stir each separate

material, either using a hand tool or in a suitable mixer, in such a manner as to ensure the

greatest possible uniformity, taking care to avoid the intrusion of foreign matter or loss of

materials. (BS 1881 – 125: 1986. Clause 4)

Figure 3.1 Showing photos of material sampling at structural laboratory unit, University of Benin, Nigeria.

40
3.1 GRADING OF THE MATERIAL TO BE USED

Grading pattern of a sample of coarse aggregate or fine aggregate is assessed by sieving a

sample successively through all the sieves mounted one over the other in order of size, with

larger sieve on the top. The material retained on each sieve after shaking, represents the fraction

of aggregate coarser than the sieve in question and finer than the sieve above. Sieving can be

done either manually or mechanically. In the manual operation the sieve is shaken giving

movements in all possible direction to give chance to all particles for passing through the sieve.

Operation should be continued till such time that almost no particle is passing through.

Mechanical devices are actually designed to give motion in all possible direction, and as such,

it is more systematic and efficient than hand sieving. (Concrete Technology by M. S. Shetty.

(2005). ISBN: 81-219-0003-4. Pg. 73-74)

Figure 3.2 Showing photos of sieving of coarse aggregate where retained sample between sieve 20mm (top) and
10mm (bottom) is being poured in head pan prior to batching process at structural laboratory, UNIBEN.

41
3.2 PREPARING THE MIX DESIGN OF THE CONCRETE GRADE TO WORK ON

DESIGN DATA ARE AS FOLLOWS:

a. Characteristic compressive strength (Fmin) = 25 N/mm2 at 28 days, with a 2.5%

defective rate (k = 1.96)

b. Portland cement class 42.5

c. Slump required = 10–30 mm

d. Maximum aggregate size = 20 mm (uncrushed)

e. Fine aggregate: 55% passing 600 μm sieve (uncrushed)

f. Relative density of fine aggregate = 2.6

g. Maximum free-w/c ratio = 0.55

h. Minimum cement content = 290 kg/m3

i. Maximum cement content = not specified.

CALCULATIONS ARE AS FOLLOWS:

(i) The mean strength, Fm = Fmin + Ks

From the Figure 3.3 below, the standard deviation (s) is 8N/mm2 since the minimum

characteristic strength of the concrete (Fmin) is 25N/mm2

Figure 3.3 Relationship between standard deviation and characteristic strength.

According to BRE, 1997
Source: (BRE, 1997)

42
 The mean strength, Fm = 25 + 1.96 x 8
= 25 + 15.68
= 40.68 N/mm2

(ii) Since OPC is used, from Table 3.1, the cement strength class is 42.5N/mm2

Table 3.1 Approximate compressive strength (N/mm2) of concrete mixes made with
a free-water/cement ratio of 0.5. According to BRE, 1997.

Source: (BRE, 1997)

The estimated w/c ratio from the Figure 3.4 below is 0.50.
Compressive strength in (N/mm2)

Free-water/cement ratio
Figure 3.4 Relationship between compressive strength and free-water/cement ratio.
According to BRE, 1997.
Source: (BRE, 1997)

This w/c ratio from strength point of view is to be checked against maximum free w/c ratio

given for special exposure condition in design data and minimum of the two is to be adopted.

From the design data, the maximum free w/c ratio is 0.55

Therefore, adopt w/c ratio of 0.50

43
 (iii) From the design data, for a slump of 10-30mm, and 20mm maximum size of

aggregate, for non-air entrained concrete given, the mixing free water content obtained

from Table 3.2 below is 160 kg/m3 of concrete for uncrushed type of aggregate.

Table 3.2 Approximate free-water contents (kg/m3) required to give various levels of
workability. According to BRE, 1997.

Source: (BRE, 1997)

The required cement content = (free water content) / (free water/cement ratio)
= 160 / 0.50
= 320 kg/m3
This required cement content is to be checked against the minimum cement content given in

design data and maximum of the two is to be adopted and it is also to be checked against

maximum cement content given in design data and maximum of the two is to be adopted.

From the design data, since no maximum cement content is specified and the minimum cement

content specified is 290 kg/m3

Therefore, we adopt cement content of 320 kg/m3

(iv) From the design data, the relative density for fine aggregate is 2.6 and relating it with free

water content in the Figure 3.3 below, the concrete density is estimated as 2400 kg/m3

44
Figure 3.5 Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete. According to BRE, 1997.
Source: (BRE, 1997)

Total aggregate content is given as (concrete density) – (cement content) – (free water content)

Total aggregate = 2400 – 320 – 160

= 1920 kg/m3

(v) From the grading of fine aggregate, percentage of fine aggregate passing 600μm sieve
is 55% thus proportion of fine aggregate for maximum aggregate size of 20mm from
the Figure 3.4 below is estimated to be within 33-37%, say 35%

Figure 3.6 Recommended proportions of fine aggregate according to percentage

passing 600μm sieve. According to BRE, 1997.
Source: (BRE, 1997)

45
Thus fine aggregate is given as 1920 x 35%
= 1920 x 0.35
= 672 kg/m3
= say 670 kg/m3

Coarse aggregate is given as (total aggregate content) - (fine aggregate content)

Coarse aggregate = 1920 – 672

= 1248 kg/m3
Say 1250 kg/m3

(f) The quantities of all the known ingredient of concrete is summarized as:
Quantity of water = 160 kg/m3
Quantity of cement = 320 kg/m3
Quantity of fine aggregate. = 670 kg/m3
Quantity of coarse aggregate = 1250 kg/m3

(g) Volume trial mix can be calculated as follows:

Volume = 100mm x 100mm x 100mm = 0.13 = 1 x 10-3 m3 per cube

Total volume for 9 cubes for each sugar percentage is given as: 9 x (1 x10-3) = 9 x 10-3 m3

Total trial mix to be used for each mix is given as: 1.4 x 9 x 10-3 = 0.0125 m3 (nearest 0 0005)

(1.4 used above is due to expansion of mix wet concrete when compare to its dry density)

(h) Multiplying all concrete ingredient quantities by total trial mix calculated, we have:

Weight of water = 160 kg/m3 x 0.0125 m3 = 2.00 kg

Weight of cement = 320 kg/m3 x 0.0125 m3 = 4.00 kg
Weight of fine aggregate = 670 kg/m3 x 0.0125 m3 = 8.375 kg
Weight of coarse aggregate = 1250 kg/m3 x 0.0125 m3 = 15.625 kg

(i) Thus when divided by weight of cement ratio of (cement : fine aggregate : coarse

aggregate) is approximately the mix ratio 1 : 2.1 : 3.9

46
 In summary, the above calculations is written in the form 3.1 below as:

Form 3.1 Concrete mix design form

MY FINAL YEAR PROJECT

25 28
2.5
Figure 3.3 8 8
1.96 1.96 8 15.68

25 15.68 40.68

Table 3.1/ Figure 3.4

0.5
0.55 0.5

10 - 30
20
Table 3.2 160 160

160 0.5 320

/
290

320

2.6

Figure 3.5 2400

2400 320 160 1920

55
Figure 3.6 35
1920 0.35 672
1920 672 1248

320 160 670 1250

0.0125 4.000 2.000 8.375 15.625

Form Source: (BRE, 1997)

47
3.3 BATCHING OF MATERIALS TO BE USED

The quantity of concrete in each batch shall be at least 10 % more than that required for the

proposed tests. For each concrete batch, weigh the cement, any ground granulated blast furnace

slag or pulverized-fuel ash and the water to an accuracy of 0.5 % or better and the aggregate to

an accuracy of 1 %.

When preparing concrete to have a given property, such as workability or air content, it may

be necessary to prepare and test trial mixes of varying composition to establish the required

mix quantities

If an admixture is to be incorporated, measure the amount to within 5 % of the specified dosage

and follow the manufacturer’s instructions for use. (BS 1881 – 125: 1986. Clause 5)

Figure 3.7: Showing photos of batching process at structural laboratory unit, University of Benin, Nigeria.

48
3.4 MIXING OF CONCRETE WITH ADMIXTURES AND PREPARING CONTROL
CONCRETE OF ONE WITHOUT ADMIXTURES

Before using the mixer, clean off any fresh concrete remaining from a previous batch. Ensure

that no free water remains in a pan mixer but if it is dry wipe it with a damp cloth. Add an all-

in aggregate as one amount. If separate fine and coarse aggregates are used, add in order about

half the coarse aggregate, the fine aggregate and the remaining coarse aggregate by spreading

them evenly over the pan and then start the mixer and run it for 15 s to 30 s. Continue mixing

and add about half the water during the next 15 s. After mixing for a total of 2 min to 3 min,

stop the mixer and leave the contents covered for 5 min to 15 min.

Add the cement and any ground granulated blast furnace slag, pulverized-fuel ash, pigment or

other powder by spreading them in an even layer over the aggregate. Start the mixer and mix

for 30 s. Stop the mixer and immediately clean off any material adhering to the mixer blades

into the pan. Without delay, recommence mixing and add the remaining mixing water over the

next 30 s. continue mixing amount. After all the materials have been added for at least 2 min

and not more than 3 min.

After completion of mixing in a pan mixer without a discharging gate, turn the concrete over

in the pan a few times using a hand tool to ensure uniformity before sampling or casting. (BS

1881 – 125: 1986. Clause 6.2.2)

Figure 3.8: Showing photos of mixing process with pan mixer at structural laboratory unit, UNIBEN.

49
3.5 PERFORMING A SLUMP TEST FOR WORKABILITY CHECK

The mould used for the test specimen is shown in the picture below. The internal dimensions

of the mould are bottom diameter = 200 mm, top diameter = 100 mm, and height = 300 mm.

The mould is filled in with fresh concrete in four layers, each approximately one-quarter of the

height and tamped with twenty-five strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod. The strokes

are distributed in a uniform manner over the cross-section and for the second and subsequent

layers should penetrate into the underlying layer. The bottom layer is tamped throughout its

depth. After the top layer has been rodded, the concrete is struck off level with a trowel or the

tamping rod, so that the mould is exactly filled. The mould is removed immediately by raising

it slowly and carefully in a vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the slump

is measured immediately by determining the difference between the height of the mould and

that of the highest point of the specimen being tested. The slump measured is recorded in terms

of millimetres of subsidence of the specimen. (BS 1881 – 102: 1983. Clause 6.)

Figure 3.9: Showing photos of slump test being performed at structural laboratory unit, University of Benin
(UNIBEN), Nigeria

50
3.6 CASTING AND COMPACTING OF ALREADY MIXED CONCRETE

When filling the mould, Place the mould on a rigid horizontal surface or on the vibrating table

and fill with concrete in such a way as to remove as much entrapped air as possible (without

significantly reducing the amount of entrained air, if present) and to produce full compaction

of the concrete with neither excessive segregation nor laitance. For this purpose, by means of

the scoop, place the concrete in the mould in layers approximately 50 mm deep and compact

each layer by using either the compacting bar or the vibrator. When compacting each layer by

means of the hammer or vibrating table use applied vibration of the minimum duration

necessary to achieve full compaction of the concrete. Over-vibration may cause excessive

segregation and laitance or loss of entrained air, if present. The required duration of vibration

will depend upon the workability of the concrete and the effectiveness of the vibrator and

vibration shall cease as soon as the surface of the concrete becomes relatively smooth and has

a glazed appearance. After the top layer has been compacted, smooth it level with the top of

the mould, using the plasterer’s float, and wipe clean the outside of the mould. (BS 1881 – 108:

1983. Clause 6.)

Figure 3.10 Showing photos of casting and compaction of already mixed concrete on vibratory table at
structural laboratory unit, University of Benin, Nigeria

51
3.7 DETERMINATION OF SETTING TIME OF CEMENT

A neat cement paste is prepared by gauging cement with 0.85 times the water required to give

a paste of standard consistency. The stop watch is started at the instant water is added to the

cement. The mould resting on a nonporous plate is filled completely with cement paste and the

surface of filled paste is levelled smooth with the top of the mould. The test is conducted at

room temperature of 27± 2°C. The mould with the cement paste is placed in the Vicat’s

apparatus as shown in the picture below and the needle is lowered gently in contact with the

test block and is then quickly released. The needle thus penetrates the test block and the reading

on the Vicat’s apparatus graduated scale is recorded. The procedure is repeated until the needle

fails to pierce the block by about 5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould. The stop watch

is pushed off and the time is recorded which gives the initial setting time.

The cement is considered to be finally set when upon applying the needle gently to the surface

of test block, the needle makes an impression, but the attachment fails to do so.

Figure 3.11 Showing photos of setting time test being performed at structural laboratory unit, UNIBEN

52
3 8 CURING OF THE CONCRETE CUBES CASTED

Water curing is by far the best method of curing as it satisfies all the requirements of curing,

namely, promotion of hydration, elimination of shrinkage and absorption of the heat of

hydration. It is pointed out that even if the membrane method is adopted, it is desirable that a

certain extent of water curing is done before the concrete is covered with membranes. Water

curing can be done in the following ways:

(a) Immersion (b) Ponding (c) Spraying or Fogging (d) Wet covering

The precast concrete items are normally immersed in curing tanks for a certain duration.

Pavement slabs, roof slab etc. are covered under water by making small ponds. Vertical

retaining wall or plastered surfaces or concrete columns etc. are cured by spraying water. In

some cases, wet coverings such as wet gunny bags, hessian cloth, jute matting, straw etc., are

wrapped to vertical surface for keeping the concrete wet. For horizontal surfaces saw dust earth

or sand are used as wet covering to keep the concrete in wet condition for a longer time so that

the concrete is not unduly dried to prevent hydration. (Concrete Technology by M. S. Shetty.

(2005). ISBN: 81-219-0003-4. Pg. 279-280).

Method used for this work is mostly spraying of water to portray the real site condition of

curing as immersion leads to disintegration of some cubes with certain percentage of sugar.

Figure 3.12 Showing photos of curing process at curing room in structural laboratory unit, UNIBEN, Nigeria

53
3.9 CRUSHING OF CONCRETE CUBES IN COMPRESSIVE MACHINE

Placing the specimen in the machine. Wipe clean the bearing surfaces of the machine and the

auxiliary platens and remove any surface water or loose grit or other material from the surfaces

of the specimens that are to be in contact with the auxiliary platens. Place the specimen between

the auxiliary platens in such a manner that the load is applied to the two sides adjacent to the

uppermost surface as cast. The upper auxiliary platen shall be directly over the lower platen in

such a manner that the specimen extends at least 25 mm from each of the two opposite edges.

Carefully mark the specimen or preferably use a suitable jig such as that shown in the picture

to ensure that the specimen and auxiliary platens are located correctly. Centre the specimen

carefully on the lower platen of the machine so that it does not touch the jig supports.

Do not use any packing between the surfaces of the specimen and the auxiliary platens or

between the auxiliary platens and the platens of the machine. Without shock, apply and increase

the load continuously at a rate within the range 0.2 N/ (mm2) to 0.4 N/ (mm2) until no greater

load can be sustained. On manually controlled machines as failure is approached the loading

will decrease; at this stage operate the controls rapidly to maintain as far as possible the

specified load. Record the maximum load applied to the specimen and note the appearance of

the concrete and any unusual features in the type of failure. (BS 1881-116:1983. Clause 5)

Figure 3.13: Showing photos of compressive strength test being performed with compressive test machine at
structural laboratory unit, University of Benin, Nigeria

54
3.10 CALCULATING OR COMPUTING THE VARIOUS COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF THE TESTED CUBES

The equivalent cube compressive strength of each specimen shall be calculated by dividing the

maximum load by the area of contact of the auxiliary platens and shall be expressed to the

nearest 0.5 N/mm2.

3.11 MATERIALS INVOLVED

Materials involved to carry out this project work includes:

a. Portland cement

b. Fine aggregates

c. Coarse aggregates

d. Water

e. Sugar (retarder admixture)

55
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter vividly presents results obtained in every test and experiment. It presents
information on physical properties of concrete in table and figure chart.

4.0 TABLES AND DISCUSSION

This section present results on experiment carried out on the physical properties of concrete in
table format

Table 4.1 Sieve Analysis results of fine aggregate

British Retained Passing Percentage Percentage

Standard sample sample retained passing
sieve size (g) (g) (%) (%)
(mm)
2.360 6.04 93.96 4 96

2.000 1.93 92.03 6 94

1.180 10.64 81.39 17 83

0.600 27.59 53.80 45 55

0.425 10.66 43.14 56 44

0.300 23.61 19.53 80 20

0.212 13.36 6.17 94 6

0.150 3.37 2.80 97 3

0.075 0.67 2.18 98 2

Total 97.82

Sample of material: 100g

From the above result, the percentage of fine aggregate passing 600 μm sieve, which is 55%

was used for concrete mix design

56
 Table 4.2 Specific Gravity Test for Fine Aggregate

Test 1 2 3 Average

Weight of bottle (W1)

19.00 19.00 19.00 19.00
in N

Weight of bottle +
59.04 59.00 59.08 59.04
sample (W2) in N

Weight of bottle +
95.42 94.37 95.11 94.97
sample + water (W3)

Weight of bottle +
70.30 70.30 70.30 70.30
water (W4) in N

(𝑊2−𝑊1)
SG = (𝑊4−𝑊1)−(𝑊3−𝑊2)

(59.04−19.00)
𝑆𝐺 = (70.30−19.00)−(94.97−59.04)

(40.04)
𝑆𝐺 = (51.30)−(35.93)

40.04
𝑆𝐺 =
15.37

𝑆𝐺 = 2.60

The above solution of specific gravity or relative density of fine aggregate equals 2.60 was

used for concrete mix design,

57
Table 4.3 Compressive test results of casted cubes at age 7 days
% of Date of Slump Curing Crushing Age Mass Crushing compressive
sugar casting method date of of force in strength of
cube cube (KN) concrete in
in in (KN/mm2)
(days) (Kg)

0.0 31/05/18 10mm Water 07/06/18 7 2.400 260.0 26.00

0.0 31/05/18 10mm Water 07/06/18 7 2.455 290.0 29.00

0.0 31/05/18 10mm Water 07/06/18 7 2.385 270.0 27.00

10 31/05/18 280mm Water 07/06/18 7 2.380 37.5 3.75

10 31/05/18 280mm Water 07/06/18 7 2.385 29.0 2.90

10 31/05/18 280mm Water 07/06/18 7 2.550 32.0 3.20

5 04/06/18 135mm Water 11/06/18 7 2.325 0.0 0.00

5 04/06/18 135mm Water 11/06/18 7 2.495 0.0 0.00

5 04/06/18 135mm Water 11/06/18 7 2.310 0.0 0.00

1 04/06/18 35mm Water 11/06/18 7 2.480 0.0 0.00

1 04/06/18 35mm Water 11/06/18 7 2.475 0.0 0.00

1 04/06/18 35mm Water 11/06/18 7 2.315 0.0 0.00

0.5 06/06/18 20mm Water 13/06/18 7 2.395 0.0 0.00

0.5 06/06/18 20mm Water 13/06/18 7 2.375 0.0 0.00

0.5 06/06/18 20mm Water 13/06/18 7 2.445 0.0 0.00

0.1 06/06/18 15mm Water 13/06/18 7 2.330 210.0 21.00

0.1 06/06/18 15mm Water 13/06/18 7 2.355 180.0 18.00

0.1 06/06/18 15mm Water 13/06/18 7 2.345 190.0 19.00

0.05 07/06/18 12mm Water 14/06/18 7 2.355 245.0 24.50

0.05 07/06/18 12mm Water 14/06/18 7 2.355 230.0 23.00

0.05 07/06/18 12mm Water 14/06/18 7 2.410 210.0 21.00

The compressive test above was performed in accordance with BS 1881-116: 1983 standard.
And the mass of the cube above was cube mass prior to subjecting it to compressive load of
the compressive machine.

58
Table 4.4 Compressive test results of casted cubes at age 14 days
% of Date of Slump Curing Crushing Age Mass Crushing Compressive
sugar casting method date of of force in strength of
cube cube (KN) concrete in
in in (KN/mm2 )
(days) (Kg)

0.0 31/05/18 10mm Water 14/06/18 14 2.385 295.0 29.50

0.0 31/05/18 10mm Water 14/06/18 14 2.325 320.0 32.00

0.0 31/05/18 10mm Water 14/06/18 14 2.410 330.0 33.00

10 31/05/18 280mm Water 14/06/18 14 2.305 85.0 8.50

10 31/05/18 280mm Water 14/06/18 14 2.435 95.0 9.50

10 31/05/18 280mm Water 14/06/18 14 2.395 90.0 9.00

5 04/06/18 135mm Water 18/06/18 14 2.395 90.5 9.05

5 04/06/18 135mm Water 18/06/18 14 2.425 98.0 9.80

5 04/06/18 135mm Water 18/06/18 14 2.325 100.0 10.00

1 04/06/18 35mm Water 18/06/18 14 2.345 105.0 10.50

1 04/06/18 35mm Water 18/06/18 14 2.465 110.0 11.00

1 04/06/18 35mm Water 18/06/18 14 2.390 110.0 11.00

0.5 06/06/18 20mm Water 20/06/18 14 2.435 175.0 17.50

0.5 06/06/18 20mm Water 20/06/18 14 2.340 180.0 18.00

0.5 06/06/18 20mm Water 20/06/18 14 2.350 175.0 17.50

0.1 06/06/18 15mm Water 20/06/18 14 2.455 290.0 29.00

0.1 06/06/18 15mm Water 20/06/18 14 2.365 270.0 27.00

0.1 06/06/18 15mm Water 20/06/18 14 2.340 280.0 28.00

0.05 07/06/18 12mm Water 21/06/18 14 2.345 345.0 34.50

0.05 07/06/18 12mm Water 21/06/18 14 2.395 350.0 35.00

0.05 07/06/18 12mm Water 21/06/18 14 2.480 360.0 36.00

The compressive test above was performed in accordance with BS 1881-116: 1983 standard.
And the mass of the cube above was cube mass prior to subjecting it to compressive load of
the compressive machine.

59
Table 4.5 Compressive test results of casted cubes at age 28 days
% of Date of Slump Curing Crushing Age Mass Crushing compressive
sugar casting method date of of force in strength of
concrete in
cube cube (KN)
(KN/mm2 )
in in
(days) (Kg)

0.0 31/05/18 10mm Water 28/06/18 28 2.310 400.0 40.00

0.0 31/05/18 10mm Water 28/06/18 28 2.410 380.0 38.00

0.0 31/05/18 10mm Water 28/06/18 28 2.375 380.0 38.00

10 31/05/18 280mm Water 28/06/18 28 2.395 85.0 8.50

10 31/05/18 280mm Water 28/06/18 28 2.365 105.0 10.50

10 31/05/18 280mm Water 28/06/18 28 2.415 95.0 9.50

5 04/06/18 135mm Water 03/07/18 28 2.380 125.0 12.50

5 04/06/18 135mm Water 03/07/18 28 2.345 135.0 13.50

5 04/06/18 135mm Water 03/07/18 28 2.435 110.0 11.00

1 04/06/18 35mm Water 03/07/18 28 2.455 160.0 16.00

1 04/06/18 35mm Water 03/07/18 28 2.435 145.0 14.50

1 04/06/18 35mm Water 03/07/18 28 2.305 150.0 15.00

0.5 06/06/18 20mm Water 05/07/18 28 2.425 200.0 20.00

0.5 06/06/18 20mm Water 05/07/18 28 2.405 195.0 19.50

0.5 06/06/18 20mm Water 05/07/18 28 2.390 210.0 21.00

0.1 06/06/18 15mm Water 05/07/18 28 2.365 390.0 39.00

0.1 06/06/18 15mm Water 05/07/18 28 2.405 410.0 41.00

0.1 06/06/18 15mm Water 05/07/18 28 2.455 380.0 38.00

0.05 07/06/18 12mm Water 06/07/18 28 2.320 450.0 45.00

0.05 07/06/18 12mm Water 06/07/18 28 2.335 465.0 46050

0.05 07/06/18 12mm Water 06/07/18 28 2.495 445.0 44.50

The compressive test above was performed in accordance with BS 1881-116: 1983 standard.
And the mass of the cube above was cube mass prior to subjecting it to compressive load of
the compressive machine

60
Table 4.6 Initial and final setting time results at various percentage of sugar

Sugar content as Initial setting time Final setting time

% of weight of (mins) (mins)

cement

0 145 205

0.05 225 305

0.1 295 480

0.5 515 720

1 170 230

5 90 150

10 40 90

The initial and final setting time test was performed in accordance with standard practice using

vicat’s apparatus under room temperature and the time taken was approximated to the nearest

5 minutes for both initial and final setting time.

61
Table 4.7 Slump test results at various percentage of sugar
Sugar content as % of weight of cement Slump

(mm)

0.00 10

0.05 12

0.10 15

0.50 20

1.00 35

5.00 135

10.00 250

The slump test performed above was in accordance with clause 6 of BS 1881 – 102: 1983,

where the internal dimensions of the mould are bottom diameter = 200 mm, top diameter = 100

mm, and height = 300 mm. The mould is filled in with fresh concrete in four layers, each

approximately one-quarter of the height and tamped with twenty-five strokes of the rounded

end of the tamping rod

62
Table 4.8 Summary of effect of sugar on properties of concrete

Sugar Initial Final Slump Average Average Average

content setting setting (mm) compressive compressive compressive

as % of time time strength at strength at strength at

weight of (mins) (mins) 7 days 14 days 28 days

cement (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)

0 145 205 10 27.33 31.50 38.67

0.05 225 305 12 22.83 35.17 45.33

0.1 295 480 15 19.33 28.00 39.33

0.5 515 720 20 0.00 17.67 20.16

1 170 230 35 0.00 10.83 15.16

5 90 150 135 0.00 9.62 12.33

10 40 90 250 3.28 9.00 9.50

The following results above are results of some physical properties of concrete (initial and final

setting time, slump test i.e. workability, and its compressive strength) with respect to the

different percentage of sugar to the weight of cement being used.

The choice of percentage of sugar to be used as an admixture lies solely on the technologist or

engineer, depending on the nature of the project, whether it is “setting time based” or

”compressive strength based”. Choosing a percentage beyond 0.13% is not advisable because

beyond it, the strength of the concrete is hampered.

63
4.1 OBSERVATIONS DURING EXPERIMENT

It was observed during mixing of concrete that workability of concrete increases as the dosage

of sugar increases per batch. Clear collapse of slump witnessed during the experimentation at

10% of sugar.

There are delay in setting time of the concrete cubes. Setting of cube specimens after 24 hrs

was difficult. During the demoulding after 24 hrs, cube specimens were exhibited cracks. So,

demoulding of specimens carried out after 72 hrs for 0.05% of admixture and 48 hrs for 0.1%.

Alternatively, careful and meticulous demoulding was done to avoid damaging of the whole

cube.

During curing, cracks was experienced in some part of the cubes (especially at the apex) due

to uneven distribution of sugar throughout the whole batch when granulated sugar is poured

into the mix ingredient before pouring water, thus to eliminate this problem, sugar was first

dissolved into the required water for mixing before pouring the filtrate to the whole mix.

Excessive expansion or cracks was experienced in some percentage mix of sugar during curing

process (from 0.5% to 10%), excessive volume expansion was noted in the sample as cracks

were formed in the sample itself thus, leading to low or no compressive strength at the early

age of concrete. Whereas in some percentage of sugar (from 0% to 0.1%), no cracking was

experienced during the curing process.

Also during curing, a whitish slippery protective coat or membrane was experienced at the

surface of the cubes unlike in control cubes, thus preventing the cubes to set faster. And the

degree of the whitish coat increases with increase in dosage of sugar.

64
As a result of excessive expansion and crack experienced in the cubes with sugar admixture to

some certain percentage coupled with the delay in the setting time caused by sugar admixture

to the concrete cubes, adopting method of immersion as curing method will definitely cause

the disintegration of the cubes inside the curing pond, thus to eliminate this problem, method

of curing adopted was water curing by spraying method.

Sugar when used in correct proportion acts as retarder but when it is used in excessive amount

it will reverse its property as a retarder i.e. acts as accelerator

65
4.2 FIGURE CHARTS AND DISCUSSION

This section present results on experiment carried out on the physical properties of concrete in
figure chart format

120

100

80
percentage of passing

60

40

20

0
0 0.075 0.015 0.212 0.3
sieve size 0.425 0.6 1.18 2 2.36

Figure 4.1 Particle size distribution curve of fine aggregate

From Figure 4.1 above, based on particle distribution standard zoning, it can be deduced that

according to the standard, the above fine aggregate have 55% passing through 0.6mm sieve

and 96% passing through 2.36mm sieve and belongs to grading zone IV that has a percentage

passing of 95 – 100%.

66
 50
45.33
45
40.25
Compressive strength in N/mm2

39.33
38.67
40
35.17 35.085 Control
33.665
35 31.5 0.05%
30 27.33 28 0.10%

25 22.83 0.50%
19.33 20.16
18.915 1%
20 17.67
15.16 5%
15 12.995 12.33
10.83 10.975 10%
9.62
9 9.25 9.5
10
3.28
5
0 0
0
0 days 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days
Age of Concrete
Figure 4.2: Comparison of compressive strength development at various sugar percentage of weight of
cement used with control sample

From Figure 4.2 above, the concrete strength development with respect to concrete age is such

that the control sample yielded highest strength from age 0-11 days before 0.05% sample

superseded its strength, yielding the highest strength from age 11 days onward. At about age

24 days onward, 0.1% sample yielded higher strength than control sample while control sample

strength is higher than other percentage above 0.1% at age 28 days.

10% sample yielded higher strength than those of 0.5% to 5% from age 0-9 days before 0.5%

sample superseded its strength at age 9 days and subsequently 1% and 5% and about age 11

days and about age 12 days respectively, the initially higher strength of 10% sample when

compared to that of 0.5% to 5% was due to reverse property of sugar as a retarder at 10%

weight of cement onward (i.e. sugar acts as accelerator at that percentage of sugar onward)

67
 30
27.33

25
22.83
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IN N/mm2

19.33
20

15

10

5 3.28

0 0 0
0
Control 0.05% 0.10% 0.50% 1% 5% 10%
SUGAR PERCENTAGE OF WEIGHT OF CEMENT USED

Figure 4.3: 7 days strength of various percentage of sugar

From Figure 4.3 above, there are reduction in compressive strength of concrete with sugar as

an admixture at earlier stage to compare with the control sample due to retarding action of

sugar which tend to increase the initial setting time of concrete thus causing lower strength. At

sugar concentration from 0.5% to 5% no compressive strength values were recorded at 7 days.

These levels of sugar concentration in cement mortar had initiated flash setting in concrete and

appear to have resulted in arresting the formation of calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) that is

mainly responsible for concrete strength at these earlier days. Beyond 5% there is a slight

increase in strength at early stage due to reverse in property of sugar as a retarder i.e. it acts as

accelerator, but due to excessive expansion and cracks on cubes, it could not attain to strength

of control sample thus yielding lower strength but higher than that of 0.5%,1% & 5%.

68
 40

35.17
35
31.5

30 28
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IN N/mm2

25

20 17.67

15
10.83
9.62 9
10

0
0.07%
Control 0.05% 0.10% 0.50% 1% 5% 10%
SUGAR PERCENTAGE OF WEIGHT OF CEMENT USED

Figure 4.4: 14 days strength of various percentage of sugar

From Figure 4.4 above, there is an increase in strength of concrete starting from 0% to 0.07%

of sugar dosage to the mass of cement used and there is peak compressive strength at 0.05% of

sugar dosage to the weight of cement used which gives about 11.65% increase in strength to

that of control sample.

Also there is compressive strength reduction of concrete cubes starting from 0.07% of sugar

onward at age 14 days.

69
 50
45.33
45

38.67 39.33
40
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IN N/mm2

35

30

25
20.16
20
15.16
15 12.33
9.5
10

0
0.13%
Control 0.05% 0.10% 0.50% 1% 5% 10%
SUGAR PERCENTAGE OF WEIGHT OF CEMENT USED

Figure 4.5: 28 days strength of various percentage of sugar

From Figure 4.5 above, there is an increase in strength of concrete starting from 0% to 0.13%

of sugar dosage to the mass of cement used and there is peak compressive strength at 0.05% of

sugar dosage to the weight of cement used which gives about 17.22% increase in strength to

that of control sample reason being that heat of hydration was reduced by adding of sugar which

in turn reduces that temperature cracks resulting from heat of hydration thus increasing

compressive strength. Also there is Compressive strength reduction of concrete cubes starting

from 0.13% of sugar onward due to excessive workability and behaviour of sugar as accelerator

70
 50

45.33
45

39.33
40 38.67

35.17
Compressive strenght of concrete in N/mm2

35
31.5

30 28
27.33

25 22.83

20.16
19.33
20 17.67
15.16
15
12.33
10.83
9.62 9.5
9
10

5 3.28

0 0 0
0
Control 0.05% 0.10% 0.50% 1% 5% 10%
Sugar content as percentage of weight of cement used

7 days 14 days 28 days

Figure 4.6: Concrete strength development in various age of concrete

From Figure 4.6 above, the compressive strength values show that strength reduction of

concrete cubes containing sugar starts at 0.07% and 0.13% sugar concentration at 14 and 28

days respectively. At sugar concentration from 0.5% to 5% no compressive strength values

were recorded at 7 days. These levels of sugar concentration in concrete had initiated flash

setting in concrete. These levels of sugar concentrations appear to have resulted in arresting

the formation of calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) that is mainly responsible for concrete

strength at these earlier days.

71
 0
-10 -12 -15
-20
-35
-50
Slump Cone Height in decreasing order (mm)

-100

-135
-150

-200

-250 -250

Percentage of sugar as weight of cement used

-300
Control 0.05% 0.10% 0.50% 1% 5% 10%
Concrete Slump (mm) -10 -12 -15 -20 -35 -135 -250

Figure 4.7: Workability (slump)

From the Figure 4.7 above, based on the experimental results, as the percentage of admixtures

increased, consequently both slump and compaction factor also increased. Workability

increased when the dosage of admixture was increased. Clear collapse of slump was witnessed

during the experimentation at 10% of sugar to the weight of cement whereas a slump of 10mm

was witnessed for a control sample designed.

72
 780
720
720

660

600

540 515
Setting time in minutes

480
480

420

360
305 295
300
225 230
240 205
170
180 145 150

120 90 90

60 40

0
Control 0.05% 0.10% 0.50% 1% 5% 10%
Percentage of sugar as weight of cement used

initial setting time(mins) Final setting time(mins)

Figure 4.8: Setting time of concrete of control with various percentage of sugar

From Figure 4.8 above, sugar when used in correct proportion acts as retarder but when it is
used in excessive amount (beyond 1%) it reverse its property i.e. acts as accelerator. Addition
of Sugar greatly influenced the setting property and causes expansion in concrete cube. Setting
of cube specimens after 24 hrs was difficult to some sugar percentage. During the demoulding
after 24 hrs, cube specimens were exhibited cracks. So, demoulding of specimens carried out
after 72 hrs for 0.5% of admixture and 48 hrs for 0.1%. The basic reason for extending the
setting of time is adsorption of sugar acted as thin layer over the cement particles and it slows
down the hydration process. Formation of calcium ions will increase the solubility and
discouraging the formation of calcium hydroxide. By this reason setting property of concrete
has been improved.

73
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

From the result obtained in this work, it is clear that a change in the properties of concrete takes

place when sugar is mixed with concrete. Thus, it is concluded that;

i. The setting time of concrete increases with increase the percentage of sugar up to 1%.

Beyond 1% use of sugar it is found that the both initial and final setting times drastically

reduces. Sugar when used in correct proportion acts as retarder.

ii. Sugar content of 0.05% by weight of cement can improve compressive strength of

concrete by 17.22% at 28 days and delay initial setting time by 80 minutes.

iii. No adverse effect on concrete and cement paste have been observed at this level of

sugar concentration (0.05%) for the concrete cubes studied.

iv. The delay in setting of concrete at this level of sugar content (0% to 0.1%) could be

useful in preventing cold joints and in reducing early setting of cement in hot weather

concreting or when construction site is a bit far from batching plant.

v. Sugar above 1% by weight of cement accelerated the setting time with nominal loss in

initial strength. Excessive volume expansion was noted in the sample as cracks were

formed in the sample itself.

vi. A careful use of sugar can be economical in comparison to commercially available set

retarder.

74
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTHER RESEARCH

It is recommended that further research be carried out with sugar on concrete over a wide

percentage range of 0 to 0.1% in order to experience the exact peak compressive strength. It is

also expected that the compressive strength of the concrete may increase appreciably.

There is also a need to study the effect of sugar on some other physical properties of concrete

such as density, shrinkage and permeability.

It is also recommended that other curing method apart from immersion and spraying of water

should be employ to carry out this same experiment.

75
 REFERENCE

Bazid, K and Bulent, B., 2002. The effect of sugar on setting-time of various types of cements,

Quarterly SCIENCE VISION 8, (1):

Bazid Khan and Ulla Muhammad (2004), Effect of a Retarding Admixture on the Setting Time

of Cement Pastes in Hot Weather.

Thomas, N. L and Birchall, J. D., 1983. The retarding action of sugars on cement hydration.

An International Journal of Cement and Concrete Research; 13, (6):

Erdogan, T. Y. 1997. Admixtures for Concrete, Middle East Technical University Ankara

Turkey.

Otunyo, A. W., Onwusiri, S. C and Nwaiwu, N., 2015. Effect of sugar cane juice on slump

values, setting times and strength of concrete, Nigerian Journal of Technology, 34, (1): 254-

258.

Oyekan G. L. (2007) University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria Effect of admixtures on the

compressive strength of sandcrete blocks.

Akogu Elijah Abalaka (2011) Effects of Sugar on Physical Properties of Ordinary

Portland cement Paste and Concrete.

Giridhar.V (2013) Effect of Sugar and Jaggery on Strength Properties of Concrete.

S.K. Duggal (2008) Building Materials (Third Revised Edition), Published by New Age

International (P) Ltd., ISBN (13): 978-81-224-2975-6

Lea, [Link] chemistry of cement and concrete. 3rd Ed Edward Amold, London, UK.

Neville A.M (1995). Properties of concrete ([Link]) Longman Group Limited.

76
Kulkarni Suresh Makarand, Mirgal Paresh Govind, Bodhale Prajyot Prakash, Tande S.N.

(2014), Effect of sugar on Properties of Concrete.

Arpana Beeranna Devakate1, Acharya and Keerthi Gowda. ICGCSC (2017) Effect of Sugar

on Setting-Time and Compressive Strength of Concrete. Proceedings Volume of International

Conference. ISBN: 978-93-5267-355-1. Copyright @ 2017. MITE.

B Shetty, M.S. 2004. Concrete technology – theory and practice. 5th ed., S. Chand and Co.

Ltd., Ram Nagar, New Delhi, India.

Ramachandran, V.S. Lowery, M.S. Wise, T. and Polomark, G.M. 1993. The role of

phosphonates in the hydration of Portland cement. Materials and Structures 26 (7): 425-32.

Young, J.F. 1972. A review of the mechanisms of set-retardation in Portland cement pastes

containing organic admixtures. Cement and Concrete Research 2(4): 415-33, July.

Rixom, M.R.; and Mailvaganam, N.P. 2007. Chemical admixtures for concrete. 3rd ed., E&FN

Spon, London, UK.

BS 1881, (1983) Part 114. Methods for determining hardened concrete strength. British

Standard Institute, London. United Kingdom.

BS 1881, (1996) Part 108. Method for making test cubes from fresh concrete. British Standards

Institute, London. United Kingdom.

BS 1881, Part 125: (1986). Methods for mixing and sampling fresh concrete in the laboratory.

British Standards Institute, London. United Kingdom.

BS 1881, Part 116: (1983). Method for determination of compressive strength of concrete

cubes. British Standards Institute, London. United Kingdom.

77
BS 1881, Part 102: (1983). Method for determination of slump. British Standards Institute,

London. United Kingdom.

BS EN 12390-1(2012). Testing of hardened concrete shapes, dimensions and other

requirements for specimens and moulds. British Standards Institute, London. United Kingdom.

Building Research Establishment Ltd BRE, (1997). Design of normal concrete mixes 2nded.

Watford (U.K.): Construction Research Communications Ltd. United Kingdom.

78