SS3 TECHNICAL DRAWING LESSON NOTES

FIRST TERM

WEEK 1: ENGINEERING DESIGNS AND WORKING DRAWING

1.1 INTRODUCTION: THE LANGUAGE OF ENGINEERING
Technical Drawing is the universal language used by engineers, designers, technicians, and
craftspeople to communicate ideas and information precisely and unambiguously. An
Engineering Design is the systematic process of identifying a problem, conceptualizing a
solution, and refining that solution into a viable, manufacturable product. The Working
Drawing is the final result of that design process—a complete and detailed set of instructions on
how to manufacture, build, or assemble a component or system.
Think of it this way: If you wanted to build a house in Japan but didn't speak Japanese,
technical drawings would be your translator. A well-executed drawing transcends language
barriers.

1.2 WHAT IS A WORKING DRAWING?

A working drawing (also called a "blueprint" or "manufacturing drawing") provides all the
necessary information to manufacture a single part or assemble a complete machine. It must be
clear, concise, and complete, leaving no room for guesswork.
Diagram 1: Anatomy of a Working Drawing
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS │
│ │
│ FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW │
│ ┌────┐ ┌────┐ ┌──┐ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ └────┘ │ │ │
│ └────┘ └──┘ │
│ │
│ ←─── 50 ────→ │
│ ↑ │
│ │ │
│ 30 DIMENSIONS │
│ │ │

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│ ↓ │
│ │
│ NOTES: │
│ • Material: Mild Steel │
│ • Finish: Smooth all surfaces │
│ • Drill and tap M10 hole │
│ │
│ ┌──────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │
│ │ TITLE BLOCK │ │
│ │ Part Name: MOUNTING BRACKET │ │
│ │ Part No: MB-001 Scale: 1:1 │ │
│ │ Material: MILD STEEL Date: 10/11/2025 │ │
│ │ Drawn by: W. THOMAS Sheet: 1 of 1 │ │
│ └──────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

1.3 COMPONENTS OF A WORKING DRAWING (DETAILED)

1. Orthographic Views
Purpose: To show the exact 2D shape of the object from different directions.
Standard:
 First Angle Projection (common in Europe, Nigeria, and most of the world)
 Third Angle Projection (common in USA, Canada)
Diagram 2: First Angle vs Third Angle Projection
FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
(Nigeria Standard) (USA Standard)

Symbol: Symbol:
⌄ ⌄
╱ ╲ ╱ ╲
⎸ ⎸ ⎸ ⎸
═ ═

Layout: Layout:
TOP FRONT
▼ ▼
SIDE → FRONT FRONT ← SIDE
▲
TOP

Main Views:
 Front View (Elevation): Shows the most descriptive features
 Top View (Plan): Shows the object as seen from directly above

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  Side View (Left or Right): Shows the object from the side
Diagram 3: Understanding Orthographic Views
3D OBJECT 2D ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS

┌─────┐ TOP VIEW

╱│ │╲ ┌─────┐
╱ │ │ ╲ │ │
╱ │ │ ╲ │ │
╱ └─────┘ ╲ └─────┘
╱ ╱
╱ ╱ FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
└──────────────┘ ┌─────┐ ┌──┐
│ │ │ │
Looking from │ │ │ │
different angles │ │ │ │
└─────┘ └──┘

2. Dimensioning
Purpose: To specify the exact size and location of all features.
Elements:
Diagram 4: Dimensioning Components
Extension Line
↓
│
←───────┼───────→ ← Dimension Line with Arrowheads
50 │
│
┌───────┴───────┐
│ │
│ OBJECT │ ← Object being dimensioned
│ │
└───────────────┘
↑
Gap (2-3mm)

Types of Dimensions:
Diagram 5: Dimension Types

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LINEAR DIMENSION RADIAL DIMENSION DIAMETRAL DIMENSION
←── 50 ──→ ╱ ╱╲
┌────────┐ ╱ ╱ ╲
│ │ R10 Ø20
└────────┘ ╲ ╲ ╱
○ ╲╱

ANGULAR DIMENSION LEADER LINE

╱ Note →────┐
╱ 45° │
╱_____ ▼
Feature

Dimensioning Rules:
1. Don't duplicate dimensions - each dimension should appear only once
2. Dimension from visible outlines - not from hidden lines
3. Place dimensions outside the view - for clarity
4. Align dimensions - for neatness
5. Use standard symbols:
o Ø = Diameter (Ø20 = 20mm diameter)
o R = Radius (R10 = 10mm radius)
o □ = Square (□15 = 15mm square)
o SR = Spherical radius

3. Line Types
Diagram 6: Standard Line Types
LINE TYPE APPEARANCE USE
━━━━━━━━━━━━━ Thick continuous Visible outlines
(0.7mm)

─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ Thin chain Centre lines

(0.35mm)

┈┈┈┈┈┈┈┈┈┈┈┈┈ Thin continuous Dimension lines,

(0.35mm) Extension lines

╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍ Thin dashed Hidden details

(0.35mm)

━ ╍ ━ ╍ ━ ╍ ━ Thick chain Cutting plane line

(0.7mm)

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4. Title Block
The title block is the "ID card" of the drawing, typically located in the bottom right corner of
the sheet.
Diagram 7: Standard Title Block Layout
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ COMPANY NAME/LOGO │
├──────────────────────┬──────────────┬───────────────────┤
│ PART NAME: │ PART NUMBER: │ SHEET: │
│ Piston Assembly │ PA-2025-001 │ 1 of 3 │
├──────────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────────┤
│ MATERIAL: │ SCALE: │ PROJECTION: │
│ Cast Iron │ 1:2 │ 1st Angle ⌄ │
├──────────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────────┤
│ DRAWN BY: │ CHECKED BY: │ DATE: │
│ W. Thomas │ O. Adeyemi │ 10/11/2025 │
├──────────────────────┴──────────────┴───────────────────┤
│ TOLERANCES: ±0.5mm unless otherwise specified │
│ DO NOT SCALE DRAWING │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Key Title Block Information:

 Part Name: Clear description (e.g., "Piston," "Mounting Bracket")
 Part Number: Unique identifier for inventory/ordering
 Material: Exact specification (e.g., "Mild Steel BS 4360," "Aluminium Alloy 6061")
 Scale: Drawing ratio (1:1 = full size, 1:2 = half size, 2:1 = double size)
 Drawn By: Draughtsman's name/initials
 Date: Completion date
 Tolerances: Acceptable variation range
 Projection Type: First or Third Angle

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between "Engineering Design" and a "Working Drawing."
2. List the six essential components of a complete working drawing.
3. Explain the purpose of orthographic views and why multiple views are necessary.
4. What does the symbol "Ø50" mean on a technical drawing?
5. Why must dimensions not be duplicated on a drawing?

ASSIGNMENT
1. On an A4 sheet (297mm × 210mm), draw:

o A 10mm border around the entire sheet

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 o A title block (120mm wide × 50mm high) in the bottom right corner
2. Fill in the title block with the following details:

o Part Name: "Spacer"

o Part Number: SP-001
o Material: "Brass"
o Scale: "1:1"
o Drawn By: (Your Name)
o Date: (Today's Date)
o Projection: First Angle
3. Draw the First Angle Projection symbol in the title block.

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WEEK 2: ENGINEERING DESIGNS AND WORKING DRAWING
(CONTINUED)
2.1 PREPARATION ON THE DRAWING TABLE (MANUAL DRAFTING)
Setting up correctly is 50% of producing a good drawing!
Diagram 8: Drawing Board Setup
TOP OF BOARD
┌────────────────────────────────────┐
│ Masking │
│ Tape → • │
│ │
│ ┌─────────────────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ DRAWING │ │
│ │ SHEET │ │
│ │ (A3/A4) │ │
│ │ │ │
│ └─────────────────┘ │
│ • ← Tape │
│ │
│ ═══════════════════════════════ │ ← T-Square
│ │ (slides along
└────────────────────────────────────┘ left edge)

Essential Tools:
Diagram 9: Drawing Instruments
T-SQUARE SET SQUARES COMPASS
═══════════════ 45° 30°/60° ○
Handle ↑ ╱│ ╱│ ╱│╲
╱ │ ╱ │ │ │ │
╱ │ ╱ │ │ │ │
╱___│ ╱___│ │_│_│
Point Lead

DIVIDERS SCALE RULE ERASER SHIELD

│╲ ╱│ ├──┼──┼──┤ ┌─────────┐
│ ╲╱ │ 0 1 2 3 │ ○ △ □ ▽ │
│ ╱╲ │ (1:100) └─────────┘
│╱ ╲│

Setup Process:
1. Clean your board - dust and dirt will show on your drawing

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 2. Align the sheet:

o Place drawing sheet on board

o Align top edge with T-square
o Use masking tape (not cellotape - it leaves residue) at all four corners
3. Draw border lines:

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│10mm border │
│ ┌───────────────────────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ DRAWING AREA │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ┌─────┐ │ │
│ │ │TITLE│ │ │
│ └───────────────│BLOCK│─┘ │
│ └─────┘ │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

4. Construction technique:

o Use 2H pencil for light construction lines

o Use HB pencil for final dark outlines
o Keep pencils sharp - blunt pencils = poor drawings

2.2 TYPES OF WORKING DRAWINGS

Working drawings fall into two main categories: Detail Drawings and Assembly Drawings.
1. Detail Drawing
Purpose: Provides ALL information to manufacture ONE single component.

Diagram 10: Sample Detail Drawing - Flanged Bush

┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ TOP VIEW Ø50 │
│ ┌─────────────────┐ ←──→ │
│ │ ┌─┐ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Ø20 │ │ │
│ │ └─┘ │ │ │
│ └─────────────────┘ ▼ │
│ │
│ FRONT VIEW (FULL SECTION) │
│ Flange │
│ ↓ │

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│ ┌─────────────────┐ ──┐ │
│ │░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ │ 10 │
│ ├─────────┬───────┤ ──┤ │
│ │░░░░░░░░░│░░░░░░░│ │ │
│ │░░░░Ø30░░│░Ø20░░░│ │ 30 │
│ │░░░░░░░░░│░░░░░░░│ │ │
│ └─────────┴───────┘ ──┘ │
│ ↑ ↑ │
│ Outer Inner │
│ Diameter Hole │
│ │
│ SECTION A-A │
│ 45° hatching shows material in section │
│ │
│ NOTES: │
│ 1. Material: Bronze │
│ 2. All surfaces to be machined smooth │
│ 3. Chamfer both ends 1×45° │
│ │
│ ┌────────────────────────────────────────┐ │
│ │ FLANGED BUSH DWG NO: FB-001 │ │
│ │ MATERIAL: BRONZE SCALE: 1:1 │ │
│ │ DRAWN: [Link] DATE: 10/11/25 │ │
│ └────────────────────────────────────────┘ │
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Content of a Detail Drawing:

 ✓ Multiple orthographic views
 ✓ Sectional views (if needed)
 ✓ COMPLETE dimensions - every size needed
 ✓ Material specification
 ✓ Surface finish notes
 ✓ Manufacturing processes (drill, tap, weld, etc.)
 ✓ Title block

2. Assembly Drawing
Purpose: Shows how all individual components fit together.

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Diagram 11: Sample Assembly Drawing - Manual Air Pump
┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ ① ← Handle │
│ ━━━━ │
│ │ │
│ │ ② ← Piston Rod │
│ │ │
│ ┌─────────────────┼─────────────────┐ │
│ │ │③ │ │
│ │ ┌──────┴──────┐ │ │
│ │ │ Piston │ │ ④ ← Cylinder │
│ │ └─────────────┘ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ⑤ ← Valve │ │
│ └───────────────────────────────────┘ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ ┌─┴─────────┴─────────┴─┐ │
│ │ Base ⑥ │ │
│ └───────────────────────┘ │
│ │
│ PARTS LIST │
│ ┌────┬─────────────────┬─────┬──────────┐ │
│ │ITEM│ PART NAME │ QTY │ PART NO │ │
│ ├────┼─────────────────┼─────┼──────────┤ │
│ │ ① │ Handle │ 1 │ HND-001 │ │
│ │ ② │ Piston Rod │ 1 │ ROD-002 │ │
│ │ ③ │ Piston │ 1 │ PST-003 │ │
│ │ ④ │ Cylinder │ 1 │ CYL-004 │ │
│ │ ⑤ │ Valve │ 1 │ VLV-005 │ │
│ │ ⑥ │ Base │ 1 │ BAS-006 │ │
│ └────┴─────────────────┴─────┴──────────┘ │
│ │
│ ┌────────────────────────────────────────┐ │
│ │ MANUAL AIR PUMP ASSY NO: MAP-100 │ │
│ │ SCALE: 1:2 DATE: 10/11/25 │ │
│ └────────────────────────────────────────┘ │
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Content of an Assembly Drawing:

 ✓ Overall view of assembled product
 ✗ NO hidden lines (would clutter the drawing)
 ✗ NO detailed dimensions (only overall/critical dimensions)
 ✓ Part balloons (numbers in circles with leader lines)
 ✓ Parts List (Bill of Materials) - table listing all parts
Balloon Guidelines:

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Good Balloon Placement Bad Balloon Placement
② ②
\ /
\ / (crosses part)
└─────→ Part Part
(clear)

2.3 EXPLODED VIEW

An exploded view is a special type of assembly drawing where parts are shown "pulled apart"
along their assembly axis.
Diagram 12: Exploded View - Bolt and Nut Assembly
① Hex Nut
▼
┌────────┐
│ ╱══╲ │
│ ║ ║ │
└──║══║──┘
║ ║
║ ║ ② Plain Washer
║ ║ ▼
┌║══║┐
│║ ║│ ○
└║══║┘
║ ║
║ ║
║ ║ ③ Bolt
║ ║ ▼
┌║══║┐
│║ ║│ ═══════════
│║ ║│
└║══║┘

Assembly direction →

EVALUATION
1. What is the primary difference between a "Detail Drawing" and an "Assembly Drawing"?
2. What are "Part Balloons" and where are they used?
3. Why are hidden lines usually omitted from assembly drawings?
4. List four pieces of information found in a Parts List (BOM).
5. In which type of drawing would you find complete dimensions for manufacturing?

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ASSIGNMENT
1. Find a simple object at home (e.g., stapler, pen, padlock, bicycle pump).
2. Sketch an exploded view showing 3-5 main parts separated.
3. Add part balloons (①, ②, ③...) with leader lines.
4. Create a Parts List table with columns:
o Item No.
o Part Name
o Quantity (QTY)
Example:
┌──────┬────────────┬─────┐
│ ITEM │ PART NAME │ QTY │
├──────┼────────────┼─────┤
│ ① │ Cap │ 1 │
│ ② │ Spring │ 1 │
│ ③ │ Body │ 1 │
└──────┴────────────┴─────┘

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WEEK 3: SCREW THREADS, FASTENERS, AND LOCKING
DEVICES
3.1 MEANING OF SCREW THREADS
A screw thread is a helical (spiral) ridge of uniform cross-section formed on the inside or
outside of a cylinder or cone. It converts rotary motion into linear motion.
 External Thread: Thread on the outside of a cylinder (e.g., bolt, screw)
 Internal Thread: Thread on the inside of a hole (e.g., nut, tapped hole)
Diagram 13: External vs Internal Threads
EXTERNAL THREAD (Bolt) INTERNAL THREAD (Nut)

╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲ ┌────────┐
╱ ╲ ╲ ╲ │╲╱╲╱╲╱╲│
╱ ╲ ╲ ╲ ││ │ │ ││
════════════════ │╱╲╱╲╱╲│
Thread cut on └────────┘
outside surface Thread cut on
inside surface

3.2 TERMINOLOGY OF SCREW THREADS

Diagram 14: Thread Profile and Terminology
←─── P (Pitch) ───→

│ ╱╲ ╱╲ ╱╲ ╱╲ │ ← Crest
│ ╱ ╲ ╱ ╲ ╱ ╲ ╱ ╲ │
│ ╱ ╲ ╲ ╲ ╲ │ ← Flank
│╱ ╲ ╱ ╲ ╱ ╲ ╱ ╲│
│ ╲╱ ╲╱ ╲╱ ╲ ← Root
│ │
│←──── D (Major) ────→│
│←─ d (Minor) ─→│
↑
Pitch Diameter

Key Terms:
1. Crest: Top surface (highest point) of thread
2. Root: Bottom surface (lowest point) of thread
3. Flank: Sloped side connecting crest and root
4. Major Diameter (D): Largest diameter (crest to crest)
5. Minor Diameter (d): Smallest diameter (root to root)

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 6. Pitch Diameter: Effective diameter (midway between major and minor)
7. Pitch (P): Distance from one crest to the next crest
8. Lead (L): Distance nut advances in one complete rotation (360°)
Types by Start:
 Single-Start Thread: Lead = Pitch (most common)
 Multi-Start Thread: Lead = Pitch × Number of Starts
o Used for fast action (bottle caps, ballpoint pens)
Types by Direction:
 Right-Hand Thread: Advances when turned clockwise (standard)
 Left-Hand Thread: Advances when turned counter-clockwise (special applications)
Diagram 15: Single-Start vs Double-Start Thread
SINGLE-START DOUBLE-START

╱╲ ╱╲ ╱╲ ╱╲ ╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲
╲╱ ╲╱ ╲╱ ╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲
One thread Two parallel
helix helices
Lead = Pitch Lead = 2 × Pitch

3.3 COMMON THREAD FORMS (PROFILES)

Diagram 16: Thread Profile Types
1. V-THREAD (ISO METRIC/UNIFIED)
60° angle
╱╲
╱ ╲ Most common
╱ 60°╲ General fasteners
╱ ╲ (bolts, screws)
╱________╲

2. SQUARE THREAD
┌──┐┌──┐
│ ││ │ Power transmission
│ ││ │ High efficiency
└──┘└──┘ Hard to manufacture
(vice screws, lathes)

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3. ACME THREAD
╱──╲╱──╲
╱ ╲ ╲ Trapezoidal
╱ 29° ╲ ╲ Stronger than square
╱________╲___╲ (car jacks, clamps)

4. BUTTRESS THREAD
│╱ │╱
│╱ │╱ One-direction force
│╱ │╱ Very high load capacity
└───└─── (gun breech, presses)
↑
Loading
direction

5. KNUCKLE THREAD
╭─╮╭─╮
│ ││ │ Rough service
╰─╯╰─╯ Easy to cast
(light bulbs, bottles)

Uses Summary:

Thread Type Primary Use Key Feature

V-Thread General fastening Universal standard
Square Power transmission Maximum efficiency
Acme Heavy-duty transmission Stronger than square
Buttress One-direction loads Asymmetric profile
Knuckle Rough service Easy to manufacture

3.4 DRAWING REPRESENTATION OF THREADS

Drawing actual helical threads is time-consuming. We use simplified conventions.
Diagram 17: Thread Representation Methods
1. DETAILED REPRESENTATION (Rarely used - large threads only)

╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲
╱ ╲ ╲ ╲ ╲ Shows actual
╱ ╲ ╲ ╲ ╲ V-shape profile
═════════════════

2. SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION (Most common)

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EXTERNAL THREAD INTERNAL THREAD (Section)

═════════ ← Thick (Major) ┌─────────┐ Thin (Major)

───────── ← Thin (Minor) │─────────│ Thick (Minor)
═════════ │─────────│
───────── │─────────│
═════════ └─────────┘

END VIEW OF BOLT END VIEW OF NUT

╱═══╲ ╱───╲
║ ─ ║ ← 3/4 circle │ ═══ │
╲═══╱ (thin, minor) ╲───╱
Full circle Hexagon
(thick, major)

3. SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION (Very simple)

═══════════ Just thick lines

═══════════ (no thin lines shown)

3.5 STANDARD THREAD DESIGNATIONS

ISO Metric Thread:
M10 × 1.5 - 6g
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ └─ Tolerance class
│ │ └───── Pitch (mm)
│ └───────── Nominal diameter (mm)
└───────────── Metric thread

Examples:
 M6 = 6mm diameter, standard (coarse) pitch
 M10 × 1.5 = 10mm diameter, 1.5mm pitch (fine)
 M20 = 20mm diameter, standard pitch

EVALUATION
1. Define "Pitch" and "Lead." How are they related in a single-start thread?
2. Sketch the profile of a Square thread and a Buttress thread. Label key features.
3. What is the main difference between a right-hand and a left-hand thread?

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 4. What is the major diameter of a screw thread, and where is it measured?
5. Why is the Square thread used for power transmission rather than V-thread?
6. Explain why we use schematic representation instead of drawing actual helical threads.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Sketch a simple bolt and nut assembly (side view).

2. Using schematic representation, show:

o External threads on the bolt (use thick and thin parallel lines)
o Internal threads on the nut in section
o Label: Major Diameter, Minor Diameter, Pitch
3. Draw the end view of:

o The bolt (showing major and minor diameter circles)

o The nut (showing hexagon with thread circles inside)
Example format:
SIDE VIEW END VIEWS

┌─────────┐ Bolt Nut

│─────────│ Nut ╱═══╲ ╱───╲
│─────────│ (Internal) ║ ─ ║ │ ═══ │
└─────────┘ ╲═══╱ ╲───╱
═════════
───────── Bolt
═════════ (External)
─────────

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WEEK 4: SCREW THREADS, FASTENERS, AND LOCKING
DEVICES (CONTINUED)
4.1 MEANING OF FASTENERS
A fastener is any hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects
together.
Classification:
 Permanent Fasteners: Cannot be easily removed (rivets, welds)
 Non-Permanent (Removable) Fasteners: Can be disassembled (bolts, screws)

4.2 IDENTIFICATION AND SKETCHING OF FASTENERS

1. BOLTS
A bolt passes through holes in both parts and uses a nut to apply clamping force.
Diagram 18: Types of Bolts
A. HEX HEAD BOLT (Most Common)

╱═══╲ ← Hexagonal head

║ ║
║ ║ ← Shank (unthreaded)
║ ║
═══════ ← Thread
───────
═══════
↓
Passes through
clearance holes

B. STUD BOLT

═════════ ← Thread (fixed end)

───────── screws into part
═════════
│
│ ← Plain shank
│
═════════ ← Thread (nut end)
───────── nut fits here
═════════

C. TAP BOLT (MACHINE SCREW)

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 ╱═══╲ ← Hex head
║═════║ ← Threaded
║─────║ all the way
║═════║ to head
║─────║
↓
Screws into
tapped hole
(no nut needed)

D. CARRIAGE BOLT

╱───╲ ← Round head

│ │ │
│ │ │ ← Square section
║═══║ (prevents rotation)
║───║
║═══║ ← Thread

2. NUTS
Diagram 19: Types of Nuts
A. HEXAGONAL NUT B. SQUARE NUT
(Most common) (Heavy duty)

╱───╲ ┌───┐
│ ═══ │ │ ═ │
╲───╱ └───┘
6 sides 4 sides

C. WING NUT D. CAP NUT (ACORN NUT)

(Hand tightening) (Decorative/protective)

╱│╲ ╱───╲
│ ═ │ │ ─ │ ← Domed cap
╲│╱ ╲═══╱
Wings

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E. CASTLE NUT F. LOCK NUT (JAM NUT)
(With split pin) (Double nut system)

╱┬─┬╲ ╱───╲ ← Thin nut

│ ═══ │ ║ ═══ ║
│ │ │ │ ← Slots ║─────║ ← Thick nut
╲┴─┴╱ ║ ═══ ║
╲───╱

G. T-NUT H. DOME NUT

(Furniture/wood) (Smooth finish)

───┬─── ╭─────╮
│ │ ─ │
╱═══╲ ╰─────╯
Prongs

3. SCREWS
Screws create their own threads or fit into pre-tapped holes.
Diagram 20: Types of Screws and Head Styles
HEAD STYLES:

A. FLAT HEAD B. ROUND HEAD C. PAN HEAD

(Countersunk) (Raised) (Low profile)

╱───╲ ╭───╮ ┌───┐

╱ ─ ╲ │ ─ │ │ ─ │
╱═══════╲ ╰───╯ └───┘
Flush with Raised above Slightly raised
surface surface

D. HEX HEAD E. BUTTON HEAD F. SOCKET HEAD

(Domed) (Allen key)

╱═══╲ ╭───╮ ╭───╮

║ ║ ║ │ ╲╱ │ │ ⬢ │ ← Hexagon
╲═══╱ ╰───╯ ╰───╯ socket

20
DRIVE TYPES:

─ + ⬢ ⊠ ⊕
Slot Phillips Hex Pozidriv Torx

SCREW TYPES:

A. WOOD SCREW B. MACHINE SCREW

╱───╲ ┌───┐
╱ ─ ╲ │ ─ │
╱═══════╲ │═════│
║═══════║ ← Tapered │─────│ ← Parallel
║═══════║ thread │═════│ thread
║═══════║ Sharp point │─────│ Blunt end
▼

C. SET SCREW D. SELF-TAPPING SCREW

═════════ ← No head ┌───┐
───────── (headless) │ ─ │
═════════ │═════║ ← Sharp
or │═════║ thread cuts
═════════ ← Socket head │═════║ into material
───────── ▼
═════════

E. GRUB SCREW F. COACH SCREW

(Same as set screw) (Heavy wood)

⬢ ╱═══╲ ← Hex head

═════════ ║═════║
───────── ← Locks ║═════║ ← Wood thread
═════════ pulley ║═════║ (large pitch)
║═════║

4. WASHERS
Diagram 21: Types of Washers
A. PLAIN WASHER B. SPRING WASHER
(Flat washer) (Lock washer)

21
 ╭───╮ ╱╲
│ ○ │ ╱ ╲ ← Split,
╰───╯ ╱ ╲ creates
Distributes load ╱──────╲ spring tension

C. TAB WASHER D. TOOTHED WASHER

┌───┐ ╱╲╱╲╱╲
│ ○│─┐ ← Tab │ ○ │ ← Internal
└───┘ │ ╲╱╲╱╲╱ or external
Bent up teeth bite
against nut

E. FENDER WASHER F. SQUARE WASHER

(Extra large OD) (Timber/metal)

╭─────╮ ┌─────┐
│ ○ │ │ ○ │
╰─────╯ └─────┘

4.3 LOCKING DEVICES

Vibration can loosen fasteners. Locking devices prevent this.
Diagram 22: Locking Device Methods
1. SPRING WASHER METHOD

╱═══╲ Nut When tightened:

║ ║ ╱═══╲
║ ╱╲ ║ Spring washer ║═════║ ← Nut compresses
║ ╱ ╲║ (split) ║─▄▄▄─║ washer
║─────║ ║═════║ ← Washer bites
║═════║ Bolt ║═════║ into surfaces
↓ ↓
Friction prevents Creates locking
loosening action

22
2. LOCK NUT METHOD (Double Nut)

╱───╲ ← Thin nut (jam nut)

║ ═══ ║ tightened first
║─────║
║ ═══ ║ ← Thick nut
╲───╱ tightened against
thin nut
═════
───── Bolt
═════
↓
Nuts jam together

3. CASTLE NUT AND SPLIT PIN

╱┬─┬╲ Castle nut

│ ═══ │ (castellated)
│ │ │ │ ← Slots
╲┴─┴╱
═║═║═ ← Split pin through
│X│ hole in bolt
═╝═╚═ and nut slots
↓
Pin bent over
to lock

4. TAB WASHER METHOD

┌───┐
│ ○│─┐ Tab washer
└───┘ │ with external tab
╱═══╲ │
║ ║──┘ Tab bent up
║═════║ against nut flat
─────
═════ Bolt
↓
Prevents rotation

23
5. LOCK WIRE (SAFETY WIRE)

╱───╲ ╱───╲
│ │~│ │ ← Wire threaded
╲───╱ ╲───╱ through holes
│ │×│ │ and twisted
═══════════
Bolts
↓
Prevents loosening
(aircraft/motorcycles)

6. THREAD LOCKING COMPOUND

═════════ ← Liquid applied

───────── to threads
═════════
↓
Chemical bond
prevents rotation
(e.g., Loctite)

4.4 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Diagram 23: Common Fastener Applications
A. THROUGH BOLT ASSEMBLY
(Two parts with clearance holes)

Part 1
┌─────────┐
│ ○ │ ← Clearance hole
└─────────┘
│═║═│ ← Bolt passes through
┌──╱═╲──┐
│ ║ ║ │ Plain washer
└──║───║──┘
Part 2
┌──║───║──┐
│ ║ ║ │ ← Clearance hole
└──║───║──┘
║ ║
╱═║═══║═╲ Washer
║ ║ ║
║ ═══ ║ Nut
╲───────╱

24
B. TAP BOLT ASSEMBLY
(One tapped hole, no nut)

╱═══╲ Hex head bolt

║═════║
║─────║ ← Thread
║═════║
┌║─────║┐
│║═════║│ ← Screws into
│║─────║│ tapped hole
│║═════║│ in part
└───────┘

C. WOOD SCREW ASSEMBLY

(Door hinge to wood)

Hinge plate
┌───────────┐
│ ○ │ ← Countersunk
└───────────┘ hole
╱───╲
╱ ─ ╲ Flat head
╱═══════╲ wood screw
╔═══════╗
║═══════║ ← Tapered thread
║═══════║ cuts into wood
║═══════║
┌───────┐
│ WOOD │
└───────┘

EVALUATION
1. What is the difference between a "bolt" and a "screw"?
2. Sketch: (a) hex nut, (b) wing nut, (c) castle nut
3. Explain the function of a plain washer.
4. Describe how a castle nut and split pin work together to lock a nut.
5. What is a stud bolt and where is it commonly used?
6. Why would you use a lock nut instead of a single nut?
7. Sketch a wood screw and label: head, shank, thread, point

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw a Through Bolt Assembly (side view in section), showing:

25
 o Two wooden blocks being joined
o Hex bolt passing through
o Plain washer under nut
o Hex nut
o Label all parts
2. Sketch a Wood Screw Application showing:

o Door hinge plate

o Two flat head wood screws
o Cross-section view through screw and wood
o Label parts
3. Create a comparison table:

┌──────────────┬──────────────┬──────────────┐
│ FASTENER │ REQUIRES │ TYPICAL USE │
│ TYPE │ NUT? │ │
├──────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────┤
│ Bolt │ │ │
│ Machine Screw│ │ │
│ Wood Screw │ │ │
│ Set Screw │ │ │
│ Stud │ │ │
└──────────────┴──────────────┴──────────────┘

26
WEEK 5: MIDTERM TEST
COVERAGE:
 Working Drawing Principles (Weeks 1-2)
 Detail vs Assembly Drawings
 Thread Terminology and Forms (Week 3)
 Fasteners: Bolts, Nuts, Screws (Week 4)
 Locking Devices and Applications
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
SECTION A: THEORY (40 Marks)
1. Define the following terms: (8 marks)

o a) Working Drawing
o b) Orthographic Projection
o c) Detail Drawing
o d) Parts List (BOM)
2. Sketch and label the parts of a screw thread profile showing: Crest, Root, Flank, Major Diameter, Minor
Diameter, Pitch (10 marks)

3. Explain THREE advantages of an assembly drawing over detail drawings when showing how a machine works.
(6 marks)

4. Describe how a spring washer acts as a locking device. Include a sketch. (8 marks)

5. List FOUR types of information that must be included in a title block. (4 marks)

6. State TWO differences between a bolt and a screw. (4 marks)

SECTION B: PRACTICAL (60 Marks)

1. Draw the following using schematic representation: (20 marks)

o a) External thread (side view and end view)

o b) Internal thread in section (side view and end view)
o Label: Major Diameter, Minor Diameter
2. Sketch the following fasteners: (15 marks)

o a) Hex head bolt

o b) Castle nut
o c) Wing nut
o d) Flat head wood screw
o e) Set screw
3. Draw a simple assembly showing a bolt, plain washer, and nut joining two metal plates. Include part balloons
and a parts list. (25 marks)

27
28
WEEK 6: ENGINEERING WORKING DRAWING
6.1 READING AND INTERPRETING ENGINEERING DRAWINGS
Reading a drawing is visualizing the 3D object from 2D views. This is a crucial skill!
Diagram 24: Systematic Drawing Reading Process
STEP 1: START WITH TITLE BLOCK
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ What is it? → BRACKET │
│ Material? → MILD STEEL │
│ Scale? → 1:1 (Full size) │
│ How many? → QTY: 2 │
└────────────────────────────────┘
↓
STEP 2: IDENTIFY MAIN VIEW (Front View)
┌────────┐
│ ┌┐ │ What shapes do I see?
│ ││ │ • Rectangle
│ └┘ │ • Small circle (Ø10)
└────────┘
↓
STEP 3: RELATE TO TOP VIEW
┌────────┐
│ │ Does circle become:
│ ○ │ • Full circle = Hole?
│ │ • Part of circle = Edge?
└────────┘
↓
STEP 4: CHECK SIDE VIEW
┌──┐
│ │ Confirms:
│ │ • Thickness
│ │ • Depth
└──┘
↓
STEP 5: FOLLOW HIDDEN LINES
┌────────┐
│╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌│ Dashed lines show
│╌ ╌│ internal or
│╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌│ hidden features
└────────┘
↓
STEP 6: READ DIMENSIONS & NOTES
←─── 50 ───→
▲
Ø10 ← Hole diameter
│
└─→ Drill and tap M10

29
6.2 DECODING DRAWING SYMBOLS AND ANNOTATIONS
Diagram 25: Common Drawing Symbols
DIAMETER SYMBOLS RADIUS SYMBOLS
Ø20 R15
─── ╭──
Diameter Radius
20mm 15mm

SQUARE SYMBOLS SPHERICAL SYMBOLS

□15 SR10
┌─┐ ◯
Square Spherical
15mm side radius 10mm

COUNTERBORE COUNTERSINK
┌───┐ ╱───╲
│ │ ⌴ 15 ╱ ╲ ∨90°
│ Ø8│ ╱ Ø8 ╲
└───┘ ─────────
Flat bottom Tapered hole
recess for flat head
screw

SPOTFACE DEPTH SYMBOL

┌───┐ Ø10
│ ○ │ SF12 ↓15
└───┘ Hole 10mm dia
Shallow flat 15mm deep
surface around
hole

THREAD CALLOUT TAPER SYMBOL

M10 × 1.5 1:10
═══════ ╲
Metric thread ╲
10mm dia ╲
1.5mm pitch 1 unit drop
per 10 units length

30
6.3 DIMENSIONING GUIDELINES
Diagram 26: Good vs Bad Dimensioning Practice
✓ GOOD PRACTICE ✗ BAD PRACTICE

Dimensions outside Dimensions crossing

views parts
←─ 50 ─→ ┌──50──┐
┌───────┐ │ │
│ │ │ ←30→ │
└───────┘ └──────┘
↑
30

Aligned dimensions Scattered dimensions

←─ 30 ─→ 30
←─── 50 ────→ ↕
┌───────────┐ ←─────→ 50
│ │ │ ┌───────┐
└───────────┘ │ │
All aligned └───────┘
20 →
Messy!

Reference dimensions Over-dimensioned

(enclosed in brackets)
←─ 20 ─→←─ 30 ─→ ←─ 20 ─→←─ 30 ─→
┌────────────┐ ┌────────────┐
│ │ │ │
└────────────┘ └────────────┘
←── (50) ──→ ←──── 50 ────→
Calculated, Redundant!
not required

Dimension to visible Dimension to hidden

lines lines
←─ 40 ─→ ┌───────┐
┌───────┐ │╌╌╌╌╌╌╌│
│ │ ✓ │╌ ╌│
└───────┘ │╌╌╌╌╌╌╌│
└───────┘
←─ 40 ─→ ✗
Avoid this!

31
6.4 PREPARING WORKING DRAWINGS - PRACTICAL EXERCISE
Example: Flanged Bush Detail Drawing
Diagram 27: Step-by-Step Construction
STEP 1: Plan the layout
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ Space for Space for │
│ TOP VIEW dimensions │
│ ↓ → │
│ │
│ Space for ← [ ] │
│ FRONT VIEW Title Block │
│ │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

STEP 2: Draw center lines (2H pencil)

┼ ← Vertical center line
│
────┼──── ← Horizontal center line
│

STEP 3: Draw TOP VIEW

┼
┌───┼───┐ ← Flange OD (Ø50)
│ ┼ │
│ ○ │ ← Inner hole (Ø20)
│ ┼ │
└───┼───┘
│

STEP 4: Project to FRONT VIEW

┌───┼───┐
│ │ │
└───│───┘
├─── ← Project lines
│
├─── down
│
┌───│───┐
│ │ │ ← Start front view
│ │ │ at same width
│ │ │
└───│───┘

32
STEP 5: Complete FRONT VIEW (as section)
Flange
↓
┌─────────┐ ─┐
│░░░░░░░░░│ │ 10
├───┬───┬─┤ ─┤
│░░░│ │░│ │
│░░░│ │░│ │ 30
│░░░│ │░│ │
└───┴───┴─┘ ─┘
↑ ↑
OD ID
Ø30 Ø20

45° hatching = SECTION A-A

STEP 6: Add dimensions (HB pencil)

←─── Ø50 ───→
┌───────────────┐ ─┐
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ │ 10
├─────────────┬─┤ ─┤
│░░░░░ Ø30 ░░░│ │ │
│░░░░░ ░░░│ │ │ 30
│░░░░░ Ø20 ░░░│ │ │
└─────────────┴─┘ ─┘

STEP 7: Add notes and title block

NOTES:
1. Material: Bronze
2. All surfaces machined
3. Chamfer 1×45° both ends
4. Remove all burrs

┌────────────────────────┐
│ FLANGED BUSH │
│ PART NO: FB-001 │
│ SCALE: 1:1 DATE: │
└────────────────────────┘

6.5 CREATING ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS - PRACTICAL EXERCISE

Example: Simple Pulley Assembly
Diagram 28: Assembly Drawing Construction

33
COMPONENTS NEEDED:
① Pulley wheel
② Shaft
③ Key
④ Bearing (×2)
⑤ Retaining ring (×2)

ASSEMBLY PROCESS:

STEP 1: Draw main component (Pulley)

╔═══════╗
╔╝ ╚╗ ← Pulley
╔╝ ╚╗
║ ║
║ ① ║
║ ║
╚╗ ╔╝
╚╗ ╔╝
╚═══════╝

STEP 2: Add shaft through center

╔═══════╗
╔╝ │ ╚╗
╔╝ │② ╚╗ ← Shaft
║─────┼─────║
║ │ ║
║ │ ║
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚═══════╝

STEP 3: Add key in keyway

╔═══════╗
╔╝ │▄ ╚╗
╔╝ │▄③ ╚╗ ← Key
║─────┼─────║ locks pulley
║ │ ║ to shaft
║ │ ║
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚═══════╝

STEP 4: Add bearings on each end

34
 ╔══╗ ╔═══════╗ ╔══╗
║④║ ╔╝ │▄ ╚╗ ║④║ ← Bearings
╚══╝╔╝ │▄③ ╚╗╚══╝
║─────┼─────║
║ │ ║
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚═══════╝

STEP 5: Add retaining rings

⊏ ╔══╗ ╔═══════╗ ╔══╗⊐

⑤║④║ ╔╝ │▄ ╚╗ ║④║⑤ ← Rings
╚══╝╔╝ │▄③ ╚╗╚══╝
║─────┼─────║
║ │ ║
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚═══════╝

STEP 6: Add balloons and parts list

②
↓
╱①╲ ⊏ ╔══╗ ╔═══════╗ ╔══╗⊐
╲─╱→⑤║④║→╔╝ │▄ ╚╗ ║④║⑤
╚══╝╔╝ │▄③ ╚╗╚══╝
║─────┼─────║
║ │ ║
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚╗ │ ╔╝
╚═══════╝

┌────┬──────────────────┬─────┐
│ITEM│ PART NAME │ QTY │
├────┼──────────────────┼─────┤
│ ① │ Pulley Wheel │ 1 │
│ ② │ Shaft │ 1 │
│ ③ │ Key │ 1 │
│ ④ │ Ball Bearing │ 2 │
│ ⑤ │ Retaining Ring │ 2 │
└────┴──────────────────┴─────┘

35
EVALUATION
1. What is the first thing you should look at when reading a new engineering drawing?
2. Why is it important to relate orthographic views to each other?
3. What is the key difference in dimensioning a detail drawing versus an assembly
drawing?
4. What does the symbol "Ø25" mean on a drawing?
5. Why do we use dashed lines in engineering drawings?
6. What information must be included in a Parts List (BOM)?

ASSIGNMENT
Scenario: You are given two detail drawings:
 Part 1: Hex Bolt (M10 × 40mm long)
 Part 2: Hex Nut (M10)
 Part 3: Plain Washer (for M10)
Task:
1. Create a simple Assembly Drawing showing:

o Nut screwed onto bolt

o Washer between nut and the joined parts
o Two metal plates being fastened together
2. Include:

o Part balloons (①, ②, ③) with leader lines

o A Parts List table
o Title block with: "BOLT ASSEMBLY," your name, date, scale 1:1
3. Do NOT include:

o Hidden lines
o Detailed dimensions (except maybe overall length)

36
WEEK 7: MIDTERM BREAK
This week is for the midterm break. Students should:
 Review all work from Weeks 1-6
 Practice sketching fasteners and thread representations
 Organize drawing sheets and instruments for second half of term

37
WEEK 8: SECTIONS AND SECTIONAL VIEWS
8.1 MEANING OF SECTIONING
Many machine parts and assemblies have internal features (holes, cavities, passages) that
cannot be clearly shown using only external views. Sectioning is a drafting technique that "cuts
open" an object to reveal these internal details.
Why Section?
 Clarity: Easier to understand than many hidden lines
 Manufacturing: Shows machinist what's inside
 Inspection: Quality control can verify internal features
Diagram 29: Hidden Lines vs Section
WITHOUT SECTION WITH SECTION
(Confusing) (Clear)

┌───────────┐ ┌───────────┐
│╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌│ │░░░│ │░░░│
│╌ ╌│ │░░░│ │░░░│
│╌ ╌╌╌╌╌ ╌│ │░░░│ │░░░│
│╌ ╌ ╌ ╌│ │░░░└───┘░░░│
│╌ ╌╌╌╌╌ ╌│ │░░░░░░░░░░░│
│╌ ╌│ └───────────┘
│╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌╌│ ↑
└───────────┘ Internal hole
↑ clearly visible
Many hidden lines with hatching
Hard to interpret

8.2 THE CUTTING PLANE AND SECTION LINES

Diagram 30: Cutting Plane Concept
3D VISUALIZATION TOP VIEW
(Showing cutting plane)
Cutting
Plane → │ ┌─────A────┐
│ │ │
┌───────│───────┐ │ │
│ │ │ │ → │
│ ┌───│───┐ │ │ → Arrows show
│ │ │ │ │ │ → direction
│ └───│───┘ │ │ │
│ │ │ └─────A────┘
└───────│───────┘ ↑
│ Cutting plane line
38
 Remove this (thick chain line)
half → │ SECTION A-A

Components of Sectioning:
Diagram 31: Section Line Standards
1. CUTTING PLANE LINE

A ━ ╍ ━ ╍ ━ ╍ ━ A
↑ ↑
Arrows show Letters identify
viewing the section
direction (SECTION A-A)

Line type: Thick (0.7mm) chain line

Position: On the view being "cut"

2. SECTION LINES (Cross-Hatching)

Standard Pattern:
│░░░░░░│ ← Thin lines (0.35mm)
│░│░│░││ at 45° angle
│░░░░░░│ evenly spaced
│░│░│░││ (2-3mm apart)
│░░░░░░│

Rules:
• 45° is standard (or 30°/60° if conflicts)
• Different parts = different directions
• Don't section: bolts, nuts, shafts,
pins, keys, ribs (if cut lengthwise)

Diagram 32: Material Representation in Section

CAST IRON STEEL BRASS/BRONZE
(General symbol) (Denser) (Crosshatch)

│░│░│░│░│ │░░│░░│░░│ │░╱░│░╱░│

│░│░│░│░│ │░░│░░│░░│ │░│╱░│╱░│
│░│░│░│░│ │░░│░░│░░│ │╱░│╱░│░│
Single lines Double lines Crossed lines
45° angle 45° angle 45° angles

39
ALUMINUM RUBBER/PLASTIC CONCRETE
(Wide spacing) (Solid/thick) (Random)

│░ │░ │░ │ │████████│ │░▪░•░▫░│
│░ │░ │░ │ │████████│ │░▫▪░ ░ │
│░ │░ │░ │ │████████│ │ ░░▪▫░ │
Wider spacing Solid black Small shapes

WOOD GLASS LIQUID

(Grain pattern) (Very sparse) (No hatch)

│╱══╱══│ │ │ │ │ │
│══╱══╱│ │ │ │ │ ~~~~~ │
│╱══╱══│ │ │ │ │ │
Flowing lines Sparse lines Wavy line

8.3 TYPES OF SECTIONS

Diagram 33: Full Section
BEFORE SECTIONING AFTER SECTIONING

TOP VIEW TOP VIEW

┌─────A────┐ ┌─────A────┐
│ │ │ │
│ ○ │ │ ○ │
│ │ │ │
└─────A────┘ └─────A────┘
│ │
│ │
FRONT VIEW SECTION A-A
┌───────────┐ ┌───────────┐
│ │ │ │░░░│ │░░░│
│ ○ │ │░░░│ │░░░│
│ │ │ │░░░│ │░░░│
└───────────┘ │░░░└───┘░░░│
│░░░░░░░░░░░│
Cutting plane └───────────┘
passes completely Half removed,
through object section replaces
front view

Use: Most common type. Shows complete internal profile. Replaces one standard view.

Diagram 34: Half Section

40
SYMMETRICAL OBJECT HALF SECTION VIEW

┌───────────┐ ┌───────────┐
│ │ │ │ │ │ External
│ ○ │ │ │ ○ │ view
│ │ │ → ├───┼───────┤ (half)
│ │ │ │░░░│ │░░░│
│ │ │ │░░░│ ○ │ Section
└───────────┘ │░░░└───┘░░░│ (half)
└───────────┘
↑
No center line
(understood)

Use: For symmetrical objects. Shows both internal (sectioned) and external (not sectioned) in
ONE view. Saves space!

Diagram 35: Offset Section

TOP VIEW OFFSET SECTION A-A
(Showing offset plane)
Features that are NOT
A ━ ╍ ━┓ in line shown AS IF
│ ┃ they were in line
│ ○ ┃
│ ┃ ○ ┌─────────────────┐
│ ○ ┃ │░░░ ○ ░░ ○ ░░░ ○ │
└───────┃━ ╍ ━ A │░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │
↑ │░░░ ○ ░░ ○ ░░░ ○ │
Cutting plane └─────────────────┘
"steps" to pass ↑
through all holes NO bend lines shown!
(cutting plane bends
are NOT indicated)

Use: When features (holes, pockets) are NOT aligned. Cutting plane "steps" to pass through all
features.
Important: The bends/steps in the cutting plane are NEVER shown in the section view!

41
Diagram 36: Revolved Section
OBJECT (Beam with I-section)

║════════════════════║
║ ╔══╗ ║ ← Complex
║════════║ ║════════║ cross-section
╚══╝

↓ Slice taken here

REVOLVED SECTION
(Rotated 90° and drawn ON the view)

║═══════════════════║
║ ┌──┐ ║ ← Section revolved
║═══════│░░│════════║ and superimposed
║ │░░│ ║ on view
║ └──┘ ║
║═══════════════════║

Use: To show the cross-sectional shape of arms, spokes, ribs, or beams. Drawn directly on the
main view.

Diagram 37: Removed Section

OBJECT

║════════════════════║
║ ╔══╗ A ║
║════════║ ║════════║
╚══╝
↓
Section taken here

REMOVED SECTION A-A

(Drawn separately)

┌──────┐
│░│░│░││ ← Cross-section
│░░░░░░│ removed from
│░│░│░││ main view
│░░░░░░│ and drawn
└──────┘ nearby

SECTION A-A

42
Use: Same as revolved, but when there's no space on the main view. Drawn elsewhere on sheet.

Diagram 38: Broken-Out Section

OBJECT WITH LOCAL FEATURE

┌──────────────────┐
│ │
│ ╱╲ │ ← Only this area
│ ╱ ╲ │ needs to be shown
│ ╱ ▓▓ ╲ │
│ ╱ ▓▓ ╲ │
│╱ ▓▓ ╲ │
└──────────────────┘
↑
Break line (irregular,
jagged, freehand)

BROKEN-OUT VIEW

┌──────────────────┐
│ ╱────── │
│ ╱░░░░░░░ │ ← Small area
│ ╱░Keyway░ │ "broken away"
│ ╱░░░│░░░░░ │ to show
│╱░░░░│░░░░░ │ internal feature
└──────────────────┘

Use: To show a small, localized internal feature without creating a full section. Break line is
irregular and hand-drawn.

8.4 WHAT NOT TO SECTION

Diagram 39: Standard Parts NOT Sectioned
WRONG ✗ CORRECT ✓

Shaft in section: Shaft NOT sectioned:

│░░░░░│ │ │
│░│░│░│ │ │ ← Show whole,
│░░░░░│ │ │ even though
│░│░│░│ │ │ cutting plane
│░░░░░│ │ │ passes through
↓ ↓
Confusing! Clear!

43
Parts NOT sectioned even if cutting plane passes through:

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ • Bolts, nuts, screws, washers │
│ • Pins, keys, cotters │
│ • Shafts, spindles, rods │
│ • Balls, rollers (bearings) │
│ • Ribs, webs, spokes (if cut │
│ lengthwise/radially) │
│ • Gear teeth, splines │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

Reason: These are standard parts.

Sectioning them adds no useful information
and makes drawing harder to read.

Diagram 40: Ribs and Webs - Special Case

CUT ACROSS RIB CUT ALONG RIB
(Section it) (DON'T section it)

┌────────┐ ┌────────┐
│░│Rib│░│ │ Rib │ ← NOT
│░└───┘░│ │ │ │ hatched!
│░░░░░░░│ │ │ │
└────────┘ └───┴────┘
↑ ↑
Section across Section along
(hatch the rib) (no hatch)

Why? Hatching along length makes rib look SOLID,

which is misleading. Rib is thin!

8.5 SECTION ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

Diagram 41: Assembly in Section
ASSEMBLY WITH MULTIPLE PARTS

│ ① │② │③ │ ④ │
│░│░│ │ │░╱░││ │
│░│░│ │ │░│╱ │ │ ← Different
│░│░│ │ │╱░│░│ │ │ hatching
│░│░│──┴──│░╱░ │──┴──│ directions
│░│░│ ② │░│╱ │ ④ │ for each part

44
 └────┴─────────┴─────┘

① Cast iron base (45° left)

② Steel shaft (not sectioned)
③ Bronze bushing (45° right)
④ Aluminum cover (30°)

Rule: Adjacent parts have DIFFERENT

hatching directions for clarity!

EVALUATION
1. What is the purpose of sectioning in technical drawing?
2. What is the difference between a cutting plane line and section lines?
3. List three parts that are NOT sectioned even if the cutting plane passes through them.
4. Differentiate between a "Full Section" and a "Half Section." When would you use each?
5. What type of section would you use to show features that are NOT in a straight line?
6. Why are ribs not sectioned when cut lengthwise?

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw a simple hollow pipe (cylinder with thick walls):

o Outer Diameter: 60mm

o Inner Diameter: 40mm
o Length: 100mm
2. Show:

o TOP VIEW (circles)

o FRONT VIEW as a FULL SECTION A-A
o Include:
 Cutting plane line on top view
 Section lines (45° hatching) on front view
 All dimensions
 Title: "PIPE SECTION"
Example sketch:
TOP VIEW
A ━ ╍ ━ ╍ ━ A
╱───╲
│ ○ │ ← Outer Ø60
╲───╱ Inner Ø40

45
SECTION A-A
┌───────────┐
│░░░│ │░░░│ ← 45° hatching
│░░░│ │░░░│
│░░░│ │░░░│
│░░░└───┘░░░│
│░░░░░░░░░░░│
└───────────┘

46
WEEK 9: BLOCK SECTIONING (ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING)
9.1 INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING DRAWINGS
This week marks a transition from Mechanical Engineering Drawing to Architectural
Drawing (Building Drawing). While the principles remain the same, the application and symbols
differ.
Building drawings are specialized working drawings that describe the construction of a building.
They communicate the architect's design to:
 Clients (for approval)
 Quantity Surveyors (for costing)
 Contractors (for construction)
 Authorities (for building permits)
Diagram 42: Three Main Types of Building Drawings
1. FLOOR PLAN 2. ELEVATION 3. SECTION
(Horizontal cut) (External view) (Vertical cut)

┌─────────┐ ┌───┐ │
│ BED │ ╱ ╲ │
│ ROOM │ │ FRONT │ ╱─╲
│ □ │ │ VIEW │ │ │
│ ┌┐ │ │ │ │ │ │
└────┘└───┘ │ │ │ ├───┤
door └───┴───┘ │░░░│
│░░░│
Shows layout Shows appearance Shows
from above from outside construction

9.2 DESIGN OF BUILDING FLOOR PLANS

A Floor Plan is a horizontal section taken approximately 1.2 meters (4 feet) above the finished
floor level. This height ensures doors and windows are "cut through" and shown clearly.
Diagram 43: Floor Plan - Conceptual View

47
SIDE VIEW SHOWING CUTTING PLANE

Roof
╱─╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
├─────────┤ ← 1.2m above floor
│ Window │ (Cutting plane)
│ │ │
│ Door │

Floor ═════════════
Foundation

RESULTING FLOOR PLAN (Looking down)

┌─────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ Window (shown as │
│ opening in wall) │
│ ╱ │
│ Door │
│ (shown with swing) │
│ │
└─────────────────────────┘

Floor Plan Elements:

Diagram 44: Floor Plan Symbol Library
WALLS (Shown with thickness)

EXTERNAL WALL (225mm/9" block)

┌─────────────────────┐
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ ← Solid wall (hatched)
└─────────────────────┘
225mm thick

INTERNAL WALL (150mm/6" block)

┌───────────────┐
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ ← Thinner than external
└───────────────┘
150mm thick

48
PARTITION WALL (100mm/4")
┌─────────────┐
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ ← Lightweight
└─────────────┘
100mm thick

DOORS (Multiple types)

SINGLE SWING DOOR

┌────┐
│ │
│ │╲ ← Door leaf
│ │ ╲ (thin line)
└────┘ ╲
90° arc shows
door swing

DOUBLE DOORS
┌─────────┐
│ ╲ ╱ │
│ ╳ │ ← Both leaves swing
│ ╱ ╲ │
└─────────┘

SLIDING DOOR
┌─────────┐
│ ──→ │ ← Arrow shows
│ │ slide direction
└─────────┘

FOLDING DOOR
┌─────────┐
│ ≋ ≋ ≋ ≋ │ ← Zigzag pattern
└─────────┘

OVERHEAD DOOR (Garage)

┌─────────┐
│ ╱╲╱╲╱ │ ← Up-and-over
└─────────┘

WINDOWS (Shown as openings)

CASEMENT WINDOW
┌─────────┐
│ │ │ ← Thin lines show
│ ──┼── │ frame/mullions
│ │ │
└─────────┘

49
SLIDING WINDOW
┌─────────┐
│ ─ ─ │ ← Overlapping
│ ─ ─ │ panels
└─────────┘

FIXED WINDOW
┌─────────┐
│ │ ← Just frame
│ │ (no opening parts)
└─────────┘

LOUVRE WINDOW
┌─────────┐
│ ═════ │ ← Horizontal
│ ═════ │ slats
│ ═════ │
└─────────┘

FIXTURES AND FITTINGS

WATER CLOSET (WC)

┌───┐
│╱─╲│ ← Toilet bowl
│╲─╱│ and cistern
└───┘

WASH HAND BASIN (WHB)

╭─╮
│ ○ │ ← Basin with
╰─╯ drain

BATH TUB
┌────────┐
│ │ ← Long rectangle
│ │ with rounded ends
└────────┘

KITCHEN SINK
┌──┬──┐
│○ │ │ ← Double bowl
└──┴──┘ with drainer

SHOWER
┌──┐
│ ╳│ ← Drain cross
└──┘

50
STOVE/COOKER
┌────┐
│ ⊡ ⊡ │ ← Burners
│ ⊡ ⊡ │
└────┘

REFRIGERATOR
┌───┐
│ │ ← Rectangle
│ R │ labeled
└───┘

DINING TABLE
╱───╲
│ │
╲───╱

CHAIR
┌─┐
│ │ ← Simple
└─┘ representation

BED
┌───────┐
│┌─────┐│ ← Mattress
││ ││ outline
│└─────┘│
└───────┘
HEAD

51
Diagram 45: Complete Floor Plan Example - 2-Bedroom Flat
SCALE: 1:100

FRONT ELEVATION
←─────── 8000 ────────→
▲
│ ┌────────────────────────────┐
│ │░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ 225mm wall
│ │░ ░░│
│ │░ ╭─╮ ╭──╮ ░░│
6000 │ │░ │○│ WHB │ │ BATH ░░│
│ │░ ╰─╯ │ │ ░░│
│ │░ ├─ ╰──╯ ░░│
│ │░ WC│ BATHROOM ░░│
│ │░ │ 2000×1800 ░░│
│ ├─░░░░┴─────────░░░░░░░░░░ │░│
│ │░ ░│░│
│ │░ BEDROOM 2 ░│░│ 150mm
│ │░ 3000×3000 ░│ │ internal
│ │░ □ ░│ │ wall
│ │░ BED ░│ │
▼ │░ ░│ │
├─░░░░░░░░░╱░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │ │
│░ ╲ │ │
│░ LIVING ROOM │ │
│░ 4000×3000 │ │
│░ │ │
│░ ╱───╲ │ │
│░ │ │ TABLE │ │
│░ ╲───╱ │ │
├─░░░░░░│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │ │
│░ ├─ DOOR │ │
│░ KITCHEN │ │
│░ 2000×2000 │ │
│░ ┌──┬──┐ │ │
│░ │○ │ │ SINK │ │
│░ └──┴──┘ │ │
│░ ┌────┐ │ │
│░ │ ⊡ ⊡ │ STOVE │ │
│░ └────┘ │ │
├─░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │ │
│░ │ │
│░ BEDROOM 1 │ │
│░ 3500×3000 │ │
│░ □ │ │
│░ BED │ │
│░ │ │
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │░│
└──────────────────────────┴─┘

52
LEGEND:
═══ External wall (225mm)
─── Internal wall (150mm)
╱ Door swing
□ Furniture
○ Plumbing fixture
░ Solid wall (section)

NOTES:
1. All dimensions in millimeters
2. Floor level: +0.00
3. Ceiling height: 2700
4. Windows: 1200×1200 (typical)

9.3 BUILDING ELEVATIONS

An Elevation is an external orthographic view of the building. It shows what you see when
standing on the ground looking at one side of the building.
Four Standard Elevations:
1. Front Elevation - Main entrance side
2. Rear Elevation - Back of building
3. Left Side Elevation - Left side
4. Right Side Elevation - Right side
Diagram 46: Elevation View - Front Elevation
FRONT ELEVATION OF 2-BEDROOM FLAT
SCALE: 1:100

ROOF (Hip style)

╱─────────╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
├───────────────────┤ ← CEILING LINE
│ │ (2700 above floor)
│ ┌───┐ ┌───┐ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ ← WINDOWS
│ └───┘ └───┘ │
│ │
│ ┌─┐ │
│ │ │ │ ← DOOR
│ └─┘ │
═════════════════════ ← FLOOR LINE
(Ground level)

53
 ─────────────────────── GROUND LINE
(Natural ground)

←────── 8000 ─────→

KEY FEATURES TO SHOW:

• Roof shape and pitch
• Window and door locations
• Building height
• Ground level
• Materials (textures)
• Eaves overhang

Material Indication on Elevations:

Diagram 47: Material Representation in Elevation
BRICK WALL BLOCK WALL
┌──┬──┬──┐ ┌────┬────┐
├──┼──┼──┤ ├────┼────┤
└──┴──┴──┘ └────┴────┘
Small rectangles Larger rectangles
(running bond) (stack bond)

STONE WALL PLASTERED WALL

┌─╱─┬╲──┐ ┌───────────┐
├╲──┼─╱─┤ │ │
└──╲┴╱───┘ │ Smooth │
Irregular shapes │ (no lines)│
└───────────┘

TIMBER CLADDING GLASS

║ ║ ║ ║ ║ ║ ┌───────────┐
║ ║ ║ ║ ║ ║ │ ╱╲ ╱╲ │
Vertical boards │╱ ╲ ╱ ╲ │
Reflections shown

CORRUGATED SHEET TILES

╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲ ┌┬┬┬┬┬┬┬┬┐
╲╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲╱ └┴┴┴┴┴┴┴┴┘
Wave pattern Overlapping pattern

54
9.4 ROOF STRUCTURES AND DESIGNS
Common Roof Types:
Diagram 48: Roof Designs in Elevation and Plan
1. FLAT ROOF
ELEVATION PLAN VIEW
┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
└─────────┘ └─────────┘
Horizontal Simple rectangle

2. SHED ROOF (Lean-to)

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW
╱──────── ┌─────────┐
╱ │ │ ↓ │ Arrow shows
╱ │ │ slope │ slope direction
───────────┘ └─────────┘
Single slope

3. GABLE ROOF (Pitched)

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW
╱╲ ┌─────────┐
╱ ╲ │ │ │ Ridge line
╱ ╲ │ │ │ (center)
╱ ╲ └─────────┘
──────────── Gable ends
Two slopes (triangular)

4. HIP ROOF
ELEVATION PLAN VIEW
╱──╲ ┌─╲───╱─┐
╱ ╲ │ ╲ ╱ │ Hip lines
╱ ╲ │ ╳ │ (diagonal)
╱ ╲ │ ╱ ╲ │
────────────── └─╱───╲─┘
Four slopes No gable ends

5. GAMBREL ROOF
ELEVATION PLAN VIEW
╱──╲ ┌─────────┐
╱ ╲ │ │ │ Similar to
╱│ │╲ │ │ │ gable in plan
╱ └────┘ ╲ └─────────┘
────────────

55
 Barn style

6. MANSARD ROOF
ELEVATION PLAN VIEW
┌──┐ ┌─────────┐
╱│ │╲ │ ┌─────┐ │ All sides
╱ └──┘ ╲ │ │ │ │ have double
╱ ╲ │ └─────┘ │ slope
────────────── └─────────┘
Four-sided gambrel

Roof Pitch Calculation:

Diagram 49: Understanding Roof Pitch
SIDE VIEW OF ROOF

Ridge
• ← RISE
╱│╲ (vertical)
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
├────────┴────────┤
│ RUN (horizontal)

←─── SPAN ─────→

PITCH CALCULATION:

Pitch = Rise/Run

Example 1:
Rise = 3m
Run = 6m
Pitch = 3/6 = 0.5 (or 1:2 or 50%)

Example 2:
Rise = 2m
Run = 5m
Pitch = 2/5 = 0.4 (or 2:5 or 40%)

EXPRESSING PITCH:

56
• As ratio: 1:2, 2:5, 1:3
• As fraction: 1/2, 2/5, 1/3
• As angle: 26.6°, 21.8°, 18.4°
• As percentage: 50%, 40%, 33%
• As "X in 12": 6:12, 5:12, 4:12

9.5 SKETCHING INTERNAL PARTS OF MOULDED HOLLOW BLOCK

Hollow blocks (sandcrete blocks) are the primary walling material in Nigeria.
Diagram 50: Standard Hollow Block Types
9-INCH BLOCK (225mm × 225mm × 450mm)
FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW (Section)

┌──────────┐ ┌──────────┐
│ │ │░░░░░░░░░░│
│ ┌──┐ │ │░ ┌──┐ ░│
│ │ │ │ │░ │ │ ░│ ← Hollow
│ └──┘ │ │░ └──┘ ░│ cores
│ │ │░░░░░░░░░░│
└──────────┘ └──────────┘
225mm 450mm
(9") (18")

FEATURES:
• Two hollow cores
• Three vertical webs
• Top and bottom solid sections
• Reduces weight
• Provides insulation

6-INCH BLOCK (150mm × 225mm × 450mm)

FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW (Section)

┌──────────┐ ┌──────────┐
│ │ │░░░░░░░░░░│
│ ┌──┐ │ │░ ┌──┐ ░│
│ │ │ │ │░ │ │ ░│
│ └──┘ │ │░ └──┘ ░│
│ │ │░░░░░░░░░░│
└──────────┘ └──────────┘
150mm 450mm
(6") (18")

Thinner than 9" block

57
Used for partitions

SOLID BLOCK (No hollows)

FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW (Section)

┌──────────┐ ┌──────────┐
│ │ │░░░░░░░░░░│
│ │ │░░░░░░░░░░│
│ │ │░░░░░░░░░░│ ← Completely
│ │ │░░░░░░░░░░│ solid
│ │ │░░░░░░░░░░│
└──────────┘ └──────────┘

Very heavy
Used for foundations
or load-bearing walls

Diagram 51: Block Laying Pattern

STRETCHER BOND (Most common)
(Running bond - overlap by half)

┌────┬────┬────┬────┐ ← Course 2
├┬───┴┬───┴┬───┴┬───┤ (offset)
└┴────┴────┴────┴────┘
┌────┬────┬────┬────┐ ← Course 1
└────┴────┴────┴────┘ (base)

STACK BOND (Not recommended)

(Joints align vertically - weak!)

┌────┬────┬────┬────┐
├────┼────┼────┼────┤ ← Weak
├────┼────┼────┼────┤ vertical
├────┼────┼────┼────┤ joints
└────┴────┴────┴────┘

CORNER DETAIL

Course 2
┌────┬────┐
├┬───┴┬──┐│
└┴────┴──┘│
┌────┬────┼┘

58
 └────┴────┘
Course 1

Blocks interlock
at corners for
strength

EVALUATION
1. What is a floor plan, and at what height above the finished floor is the cutting plane taken?
2. What is the difference between a floor plan and an elevation?
3. List four common types of roof designs.
4. Sketch the floor plan symbol for: a) A single swing door b) A water closet (WC) c) A
window
5. What three features are typically shown in a floor plan?
6. What is the purpose of hollow cores in sandcrete blocks?
7. Define "roof pitch" and explain how it is calculated.

ASSIGNMENT
Part 1: Simple Floor Plan
1. On an A4 sheet, draw a floor plan for a single room (e.g., your bedroom or a bathroom).
2. Dimensions: Approximately 3m × 4m
3. Include:
o External walls (225mm thick, hatched)
o One door (show swing with arc)
o One window (show opening in wall)
o At least two furniture items or fixtures (use appropriate symbols)
o Label the room name
o Add dimensions for length and width
o 10mm border and simple title block
Part 2: Hollow Block Sketch 4. Draw a 9-inch hollow block showing:
 Front view (simple rectangle)
 Top view in section (showing the two hollow cores and webs)
 Label: Overall dimensions, web thickness, core dimensions
 Use hatching (45°) to show solid material
Example format:
BEDROOM FLOOR PLAN BLOCK DETAILS
SCALE: 1:50 SCALE: 1:5

59
┌─────────────────┐ ┌──────────┐
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ │ │
│░ ╱ │ │ ┌──┐ │
│░ ╱ BEDROOM │ │ │ │ │
│░ ╱ 3000×4000 │ │ └──┘ │
│░ ░│ │ │
│░ □ ░│ └──────────┘
│░ BED ░│ FRONT VIEW
│░ ░│
│░ ┌───┐ ░│ ┌──────────┐
│░ │ │ WINDOW ░│ │░░░░░░░░░░│
│░ └───┘ ░│ │░ ┌──┐ ░│
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ │░ │ │ ░│
└─────────────────┘ │░ └──┘ ░│
│░░░░░░░░░░│
└──────────┘
TOP VIEW (SECTION)

60
WEEK 10: BLOCK SECTIONING (CONTINUED)
10.1 BUILDING SECTIONAL VIEWS
While a Floor Plan is a horizontal section, a Building Section is a vertical section that cuts
through the building from roof to foundation, revealing the internal construction.
Purpose:
 Shows how the building is constructed
 Reveals structural elements (foundation, floor slab, wall construction, roof structure)
 Indicates heights and levels
 Shows materials in section
 Guides contractors during construction
Diagram 52: Building Section - Conceptual View
FLOOR PLAN (showing cutting plane location)

┌─────────────────────────┐
│ A │
│ ║ │
│ BED ║ LIVING │
│ ROOM ║ ROOM │
│ ║ │
│ ║ │
│ A │
└─────────────────────────┘
↑
Cutting plane line
(SECTION A-A taken here)

3D VIEW (showing where section cuts)

Roof ╱───╲
╱ ╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Section cuts
╱ │ ╲ through here
╱ │ ╲
Wall│ │ │Wall
│ │ │
════╧══════╧══════╧════ Floor
Foundation

61
10.2 COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING SECTION
Diagram 53: Complete Building Section - Single Story
SECTION A-A
SCALE: 1:50

ROOF STRUCTURE
╱│Ridge╲ ← Ridge level: +4.50
╱ │ ╲ (4.5m above ground)
╱ │King ╲
╱ │Post ╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Rafter
╱═════╧═════════ ╲ (sloped beam)
╱ Ceiling Joist ╲
├───────────────────┤ ← Ceiling level: +2.70
│ │ (2.7m above floor)
│ ROOM │
│ │ ← Window head: +2.10
│ ┌───────────┐ │
│ │ WINDOW │ │ ← Window sill: +1.00
│ └───────────┘ │
│ │
══════════════════════ ← Floor level: ±0.00
│░░░░Floor slab░░░░░│ (reference point)
│░░Hardcore filling░│
├───────────────────┤
│░░░░Foundation░░░░░│ ← Foundation: -1.00
│░░░░(Concrete)░░░░░│ (1m below ground)
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│
└───────────────────┘ ← Foundation bottom: -1.50

GROUND LEVEL ──────────── ← Natural ground: -0.15

(Shown with hatch or text)

TYPICAL ANNOTATIONS:

┌─────────────────────────┐
│ MATERIALS & NOTES: │
├─────────────────────────┤
│ • Roof: Aluminum sheet │
│ on timber trusses │
│ • Ceiling: POP finish │
│ • Walls: 225mm blocks, │
│ plastered both sides │
│ • Floor: Concrete slab │
│ on hardcore, with │
│ ceramic tile finish │
│ • Foundation: Mass │
62
│ concrete 1:3:6 mix │
└─────────────────────────┘

Diagram 54: Building Section - Key Components Labeled

ROOFING COMPONENTS

Ridge board
↓
╱─────┴─────╲
╱ Rafter ╲ ← Purlin (sits on rafter)
╱ │ ╲ ║
╱ │King ╲ ║ Roofing sheet
╱ │Post ╲ ║ (corrugated)
╱ │ ╲ ║
╱══════════╧════════════╲══╝
╱ Tie beam (bottom ╲
╱ chord of truss) ╲
├─────┬─────────┬──────────┤
│ │Ceiling │ Strut │ ← Ceiling joist
│ │joist │ │ (supports ceiling)
│ ↓ ↓ │
├───────────────────────────┤ ← Wall plate
│░░░WALL (9" block)░░░░░░░░│ (timber on top
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ of wall)

WALL COMPONENTS

│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│
│░░225mm hollow block░░░░░░│ ← Main wall
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ (load bearing)
│░Plaster both sides░░░░░░░│
│░(20mm cement mortar)░░░░░│

FLOOR COMPONENTS

══════════════════════════
│░Ceramic tile (10mm)░░░░│ ← Floor finish
├─────────────────────────┤
│░Concrete slab (150mm)░░│ ← Structural slab
├─────────────────────────┤
│░░DPC (Damp Proof │ ← Waterproof
│░░Course) membrane░░░░░░│ membrane
├─────────────────────────┤
│░░Hardcore (150mm)░░░░░░│ ← Compacted
│░░Compacted laterite░░░░│ filling

63
 FOUNDATION COMPONENTS

├─────────────────────────┤
│░░Sand blinding (50mm)░░│ ← Leveling layer
├─────────────────────────┤
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│
│░░Foundation (Mass░░░░░░│ ← Concrete
│░░concrete 1:3:6)░░░░░░░│ foundation
│░░Width: 600mm░░░░░░░░░░│ (wider than wall)
│░░Depth: 500mm░░░░░░░░░░│
└─────────────────────────┘

10.3 ROOF TRUSS DESIGNS

A truss is a rigid triangular framework that spans across the building to support the roof.
Diagram 55: Common Truss Types
1. KING POST TRUSS (Simple, span up to 8m)

Ridge
│
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Rafter
╱ │ ╲ (principal)
╱ │ ╲
╱ │King╲ ← Strut
╱ │Post ╲
╱══════╧══════╲ ← Tie beam
A B

2. QUEEN POST TRUSS (Span 8-12m)

Ridge
│
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ Queen╲│ ← Queen posts
╱ Posts╱│ (two vertical)
╱ │╲ ╱ │╲
╱════╧═╲╱══╧═╲ ← Tie beam
A B
↑

64
 Allows storage
space in center

3. FINK TRUSS (Modern, span 8-15m)

(W-shape web)

Ridge
│
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Compression
╱ ╱│╲ ╲ members
╱ ╱ │ ╲ ╲
╱ ╱ │ ╲ ╲ ← Tension
╱══╱═══╧═══╲══╲ members
A B
W shape

4. HOWE TRUSS (Heavy loads, span 15-30m)

Ridge
│
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱│ │ │╲ ← Vertical
╱ │ │ │ ╲ members
╱ │╲│╱│ ╲
╱ │ ╳ │ ╲ ← Diagonal
╱════╧═╧═╧════╲ members
A B

5. SCISSORS TRUSS (Cathedral ceiling)

Ridge
│
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ ╳ ╲ ← Crossed
╱ ╱ ╲ ╲ members
╱ ╱ ╲ ╲ create
╱══╱═════╲══╲ vaulted
A B ceiling space

Truss Member Forces:

65
Diagram 56: Force Distribution in King Post Truss
LOAD (Roof weight + wind + rain)
↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓
╱─┬─┬─┬─┬─╲
╱ C C C C ╲ ← C = Compression
╱ O O O O ╲ (being squeezed)
╱ M M M M ╲
╱ P P P P ╲
╱ R R R R ╲
╱═══════T═T═T════════╲ ← T = Tension
A B (being pulled)
↑ ↑
Support Support
(reactions)

KEY PRINCIPLES:
• Rafters in COMPRESSION (pushed inward)
• Tie beam in TENSION (pulled apart)
• King post in COMPRESSION (squeezed)
• Struts in COMPRESSION
• Triangular shape prevents collapse

10.4 INTEGRATION OF VIEWS

All three views (Plan, Elevation, Section) must work together to fully describe the building.
Diagram 57: View Relationship
FLOOR PLAN (Top view)
Shows: Room layout, walls, doors, windows
WHERE section A-A is taken

┌─────────────────────────┐
│ A │
│ ║ │
│ 3000 ║ 4000 │
│ ║ │
│ ╱ ║ │
│ ╱ ║ □ │
│ ╱ ║ BED │
│ ║ │
│ A │
└─────────────────────────┘
←────── 7000 ─────→

FRONT ELEVATION (External view)

Shows: What building looks like from outside
66
 Height, roof shape, windows, doors

╱───────╲ ← Roof
╱ ╲
╱ ▲ ╲
├──────┼──────┤ ← Wall
│ ┌───┴───┐ │ top
│ │WINDOW │ │
│ └───────┘ │
│ ┌─┐ │
│ │D│ │ ← Door
│ └─┘ │
══════════════ ← Ground
←── 7000 ───→

SECTION A-A (Vertical cut)

Shows: Internal construction
Foundation, floor, roof structure

╱│╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Truss
╱ │ ╲ visible
╱═══╧═══╲
├─────────┤ ← Ceiling
│ │
│ ROOM │ ← Internal
│ │ space
══════════ ← Floor
│░░░░░░░░░│ ← Foundation
└─────────┘

All three views use SAME WIDTH (7000)

Plan and Section use SAME HEIGHT dimensions
Elevation and Section show SAME vertical heights

10.5 DETAILED SECTION THROUGH WALL

67
Diagram 58: Wall Section Detail (Typical at 1:20 scale)
EXTERNAL WALL DETAIL
(Section showing all layers)

OUTSIDE INSIDE
─────── ──────

Ridge level: +4.50

╱═════════════╲
╱ Aluminum sheet╲ ← 0.5mm corrugated
╱ on timber ╲ aluminum roofing
╱ battens ╲
╱═════════════════════╲

├─────────────────────┤ ← Ceiling level: +2.70

│ POP ceiling finish │ (Plaster of Paris)
│ │ on timber joists
├─────────────────────┤

│ 20mm cement/sand │ ← Internal plaster

│ plaster (1:4) │ (smooth finish)
├─────────────────────┤
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │
│░ 225mm hollow ░ │ ← 9" sandcrete
│░ sandcrete ░ │ block wall
│░ block ░ │ (load bearing)
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │
├─────────────────────┤
│ 20mm cement/sand │ ← External render
│ render (1:3) │ (weather protection)
│ Textured finish │

══════════════════════ ← Floor level: ±0.00

│ 10mm ceramic tiles │ ← Floor finish
├─────────────────────┤
│ 25mm cement screed │ ← Leveling screed
├─────────────────────┤
│ 150mm reinforced │ ← Structural slab
│ concrete slab │ (with steel bars)
├─────────────────────┤
│ DPC membrane │ ← Waterproofing
│ (1000 gauge poly) │
├─────────────────────┤
│ 150mm hardcore │ ← Compacted
│ (laterite/stone) │ sub-base
├─────────────────────┤
│ 50mm sand blinding │ ← Leveling sand
├─────────────────────┤

68
───── GROUND LEVEL ────── -0.15

├─────────────────────┤
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │
│░ 600mm wide ░ │ ← Strip foundation
│░ mass concrete ░ │ (concrete grade
│░ foundation ░ │ 1:3:6 mix)
│░ 1:3:6 mix ░ │
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │ Depth: 500mm
└─────────────────────┘ Base level: -1.50

MATERIAL KEY:
░ = Solid material (block, concrete)
═ = Horizontal surface
│ = Vertical surface
╱╲= Sloped surface (roof)

10.6 FOUNDATION TYPES

Diagram 59: Common Foundation Types
1. STRIP FOUNDATION (For walls)

PLAN VIEW SECTION

┌─────────────┐ │
│░░░░░░Wall░░░│ │Wall
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ ───┴───
└─────────────┘ │░░░░░░░│
┌─────────────┐ │░Found░│
│░Foundation░░│ │░ation░│
│░░Wider than░│ └───────┘
│░░░░wall░░░░░│
└─────────────┘
Continuous under Distributes
entire wall length wall load

2. PAD FOUNDATION (For columns)

PLAN VIEW SECTION

Column
│││ ┌───┐Column
┌───┼┼┼───┐ │░░░│
│░░░│││░░░│ ├───┤
│░░░└┴┘░░░│ ──┴───┴──
│░░Square░░│ │░░░░░░░│
│░░░Pad░░░░│ │░░Pad░░│

69
 └──────────┘ └───────┘
Ground
Isolated Spreads
square pad point load

3. RAFT FOUNDATION (Weak soil)

PLAN VIEW SECTION

┌─────────────┐ Building
│ │ ││││││
│ Entire │ ──┴┴┴┴┴┴──
│ building │ │░░░░░░░░│
│ footprint │ │░░Raft░░│
│ │ │░░Slab░░│
└─────────────┘ └────────┘
Ground
Covers whole Spreads load
building area over large area

4. PILE FOUNDATION (Very weak soil)

ELEVATION DETAIL
Building
││││ │
──┴┴┴┴── │
│Pile Cap│ │
└┬──┬──┬┘ │Pile
│ │ │ │(driven
│ │ │ │ deep)
│ │ │ │
═╧══╧══╧═ ← Weak ═╧═ ← Hard
═════════ soil layer
═Hard═════
═Layer════

Long piles Transfer load

driven/drilled to deep stable
to hard layer layer

EVALUATION
1. What is the main difference between a Floor Plan and a Building Section?
2. What key component of the roof structure is made clearly visible in a building section?
3. Where is the cutting plane line for a "Section A-A" shown on the drawings?

70
 4. In a building's plan, what does a rectangle with diagonal lines from the corners represent
(what roof type)?
5. List the main components shown in a typical wall section detail (from roof to foundation).
6. What is the purpose of a DPC (Damp Proof Course) in a floor construction?
7. Sketch a simple King Post Truss and label: Ridge, Rafter, King Post, Tie Beam.

ASSIGNMENT
Scenario: You have drawn a floor plan of a simple rectangular room last week.
Task: Now create a Building Section through that room.
Requirements:
1. Draw SECTION A-A (scale 1:50) showing:

o Foundation (below ground level -1.00m)

 Width: 600mm
 Depth: 500mm (from -1.00 to -1.50)
 Material: Mass concrete (hatch 45°)
o Floor Construction (at ground level ±0.00)

 150mm hardcore (compacted)

 150mm concrete slab
 Ceramic tile finish
o Walls (both sides of room)

 225mm hollow block (hatched)

 Height: 2.7m to ceiling level
 Show plaster finish both sides
o Ceiling (at +2.70m level)

 Show ceiling joists

 POP finish
o Roof Structure (above ceiling)

 Simple King Post Truss

 Show: Ridge, Rafters, King Post, Tie Beam, Struts
 Roof pitch: approx 30°
 Ridge level: +4.50m
 Aluminum roofing sheets
2. Add dimensions showing:

o Room width
o Floor level (±0.00)

71
 o Ceiling level (+2.70)
o Ridge level (+4.50)
o Foundation depth (-1.50)
3. Include notes:

o Material specifications
o "SECTION A-A"
o Scale
o Title block
Example outline:
SECTION A-A SCALE 1:50

Roof ╱───╲ +4.50

╱│ │╲
╱ │ │ ╲
╱══╧═══╧══╲
├───────────┤ +2.70
│ │
│ ROOM │
│ 3m×4m │
══════════════ ±0.00
│░░░░░░░░░░░│
│░Foundation░│ -1.00
└───────────┘ -1.50

NOTES:
• Foundation: Mass concrete 1:3:6
• Walls: 225mm hollow block
• Floor: Concrete on hardcore
• Roof: Aluminum sheet on
timber truss

72
WEEK 11: REVISION
COMPREHENSIVE FIRST TERM REVIEW
This week consolidates all topics covered during the first term. Students should review, practice,
and prepare for final examinations.

11.1 REVISION SCHEDULE

Day 1-2: Working Drawing Fundamentals (Weeks 1-2)
 Components of working drawings
 Detail vs Assembly drawings
 Orthographic projection (1st vs 3rd angle)
 Title blocks and dimensioning
 Line types and their uses
Day 3-4: Threads and Fasteners (Weeks 3-4)
 Thread terminology and profiles
 Thread representation (schematic)
 Types of bolts, nuts, screws, washers
 Locking devices and applications
Day 5-6: Sectioning (Week 8)
 Types of sections (Full, Half, Offset, etc.)
 Cutting planes and section lines
 What NOT to section
 Material representation
Day 7-8: Architectural Drawing (Weeks 9-10)
 Floor plans, Elevations, Sections
 Building symbols (doors, windows, fixtures)
 Roof types and trusses
 Foundation types

11.2 PRACTICE EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Complete the Drawing
Given these orthographic views, identify the object:

73
FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW
┌────────┐ ┌────────┐ ┌──┐
│ ┌──┐ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ ○ │ │ │
│ └──┘ │ │ │ │ │
└────────┘ └────────┘ └──┘

Object: _____________ (Flanged bush? Pulley? Spacer?)

Exercise 2: Thread Representation

Draw the schematic representation of: a) External thread (M10 × 20mm long) - side view and
end view b) Internal thread (M10) in section - side view and end view

Exercise 3: Fastener Identification

Sketch and label:
1. Hex head bolt
2. Castle nut
3. Spring washer
4. Flat head wood screw
5. Set screw

Exercise 4: Section Type Identification

For each description, name the section type:
a) Cutting plane passes completely through object, removing half Answer: _____________
b) Shows internal features in one half, external in other half Answer: _____________
c) Cutting plane "steps" to pass through multiple non-aligned features Answer: _____________
d) Cross-section rotated 90° and drawn on the main view Answer: _____________
e) Small area "broken away" to show local feature Answer: _____________

Exercise 5: Floor Plan Symbols

Draw the floor plan symbols for:
1. Single swing door (opening inward to right)
2. Water closet (WC)
3. Wash hand basin (WHB)

74
 4. Casement window (1200mm wide)
5. Kitchen sink with double bowl

Exercise 6: Building Section

Label all components on this simplified building section:
╱│╲ ← A. _____________
╱ │ ╲
╱══╧══╲ ← B. _____________
├───────┤ ← C. _____________
│ │
│ ROOM │
│ │
═════════ ← D. _____________
│░░░░░░░│ ← E. _____________
│░░░░░░░│
└───────┘ ← F. _____________

Options: Foundation, Floor, Ceiling, Wall, Truss, Tie Beam

11.3 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

Question 1: (WAEC Style) State FOUR components that must be included in a complete
working drawing. (4 marks)
Answer:
1. Orthographic views (Front, Top, Side)
2. Dimensions (all sizes and locations)
3. Title block (part name, material, scale, etc.)
4. Notes and specifications (manufacturing instructions)

Question 2: (WAEC Style) a) Sketch the profile of a V-thread. (3 marks) b) Label: Crest, Root,
Major Diameter, Pitch. (4 marks) c) State ONE use of V-thread. (1 mark)

75
Question 3: (WAEC Style) The diagram below shows an incomplete assembly drawing.
┌─────┐
│ ② │ ← Hex Nut
├─────┤
│ ? │
├─────┤
│░░░░░│
│░Part░│
│░░░░░│
└─────┘

a) What component is missing at "?"? (2 marks) b) State the function of this component. (2
marks) c) Complete the assembly by sketching the missing part. (4 marks)
Answer: a) Plain washer (or flat washer) b) Distributes clamping load / Protects surface /
Prevents damage to part c) [Student draws washer between nut and part]

Question 4: (WAEC Style) a) Differentiate between a "Detail Drawing" and an "Assembly

Drawing." (4 marks) b) State TWO pieces of information found in a Parts List. (2 marks)
Answer: a)
 Detail Drawing: Shows one component only with complete dimensions for
manufacturing
 Assembly Drawing: Shows how multiple components fit together, no detailed
dimensions, includes parts list with balloons
b)
 Part Name
 Quantity (QTY)
 Part Number
 Material (any TWO)

Question 5: (Practical - 20 marks) Draw the following using proper schematic representation: a)
A hex bolt (M12 × 40mm long) with external thread b) A hex nut (M12) shown in section with
internal thread c) Show both the side view and end view of each d) Label: Major Diameter,
Minor Diameter e) Include a simple title block

76
Question 6: (WAEC Style) The floor plan below shows a room with doors and windows.
┌─────────────────────┐
│░ ░│
│░ ╱ ┌───┐░│
│░ ╱ ROOM │ │░│
│░ ╱ └───┘░│
│░ ░│
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│
└─────────────────────┘

a) What does the arc symbol (╱) represent? (1 mark) b) Redraw the door symbol showing it
opening outward instead. (3 marks) c) What is the typical thickness of the external wall shown?
(1 mark)
Answer: a) Door swing / Direction door opens b) [Student redraws with arc on outside of wall] c)
225mm (or 9 inches)

Question 7: (Practical - 25 marks) Using a scale of 1:50, draw a simple floor plan for a
bathroom (2.5m × 2.0m) including:
 External walls (225mm thick)
 One door (900mm wide)
 One window (600mm wide)
 Water closet (WC)
 Wash hand basin (WHB)
 Shower cubicle
 All dimensions
 Border and title block

11.4 COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID

Diagram 60: Common Drawing Errors
DIMENSIONING ERRORS

✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
50 50
┌──────┐ ┌──────┐
│ 30 │ │ │
│ │ │ │
└──────┘ └──────┘
30
Dimension inside Dimensions
view (cluttered) outside view

77
✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
50 50 ←─ 50 ─→
┌──────┐ ┌──────┐
│ │ │ │ 30
└──────┘ 30 30 └──────┘ ↑
Duplicate Each dimension
dimensions shown once

THREAD REPRESENTATION ERRORS

✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
═══════ ═══════
═══════ No thin ─────── Thin line
═══════ lines shown ═══════ for minor
═══════ ─────── diameter
Missing minor ═══════
diameter Correct

SECTION LINE ERRORS

✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
│░░░░░░│ │░│░│░││
│░░░░░░│ Solid │░░░░░░│ Evenly
│░░░░░░│ fill │░│░│░││ spaced
│░░░░░░│ │░░░░░░│ lines
Too dense Proper spacing

FLOOR PLAN ERRORS

✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
┌───────┐ ┌─────────┐
│ ── │ Door │ ╱ │ Door
│ │ without │ ╱ │ with
└───────┘ swing └─────────┘ swing arc
Missing swing Shows opening

✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
┌───────┐ ┌─────────┐
│ │ Window │ ┌───┐ │ Window
│ │ missing │ │ │ │ properly
└───────┘ frame └──┴───┴──┘ shown
No detail Clear opening

78
11.5 EXAMINATION TIPS
For Theory Questions:
1. Read carefully - Understand what is being asked
2. Answer directly - Don't write unnecessary information
3. Use correct terms - "Major diameter" not "big size"
4. Be specific - "225mm hollow block" not "block"
5. State units - Always include mm, m, degrees, etc.
For Drawing Questions:
1. Use correct scale - If asked for 1:50, maintain it throughout
2. Draw faintly first - Use 2H pencil for construction
3. Darken final lines - Use HB pencil for final outlines
4. Include all requirements:
o Border (10mm)
o Title block (properly filled)
o Dimensions (where required)
o Labels (where asked)
o Scale indication
5. Keep drawing clean - Erase construction lines
6. Check your work - Review before submission

FINAL EVALUATION
Answer ALL questions:
1. Define the following terms: (10 marks) a) Working Drawing b) Detail Drawing c) Assembly Drawing d) Cutting
Plane e) Floor Plan

2. List FIVE types of information that must appear in a title block. (5 marks)

3. Sketch the schematic representation (side view and end view) of: a) External thread (5 marks) b) Internal
thread in section (5 marks)

4. Draw and label FOUR types of nuts. (8 marks)

5. Name and sketch THREE types of sections. (9 marks)

6. Draw the floor plan symbols for: (8 marks) a) Single swing door b) Water closet c) Casement window d)
Kitchen sink

7. Sketch a simple King Post Truss and label ALL members. (10 marks)

79
TOTAL: 60 MARKS

FINAL ASSIGNMENT
PROJECT: Complete Working Drawing Set
Create a complete set of working drawings for a simple tool box consisting of:
Components:
1. Base (rectangular tray)
2. Two side panels
3. Two end panels
4. Handle (wooden dowel with end caps)
5. 8 × Wood screws (to join panels)
6. 2 × Small hinges (optional lid)
Required Drawings:
1. Detail Drawing for each component (6 sheets minimum):

o Fully dimensioned orthographic views

o Material specification
o Notes on finishing
o Proper title block
2. Assembly Drawing (1 sheet):

o Exploded view showing how parts fit together

o Part balloons (①, ②, ③, etc.)
o Complete Parts List (BOM)
o Overall dimensions only
o Assembly notes/instructions
Specifications:
 Use A4 sheets
 Scale: 1:2 or 1:5 (as appropriate)
 First Angle Projection
 Include all standard conventions

80
SS3 TECHNICAL DRAWING LESSON NOTES

SECOND TERM

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1.1 MEANING OF COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that can:
 Accept data (Input) - through keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.
 Process data (Processing) - according to program instructions
 Produce results (Output) - through monitor, printer, plotter
 Store information (Storage) - for future retrieval and use
In Technical Drawing Context: Computers have revolutionized the design industry,
transforming how we create, modify, store, and share technical drawings.
Diagram 61: The Computing Process
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT
↓ ↓ ↓
┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐
│ Mouse │ │ CPU │ │ Monitor │
│ Keyboard│ → │ (Brain) │ → │ Plotter │
│ Scanner │ │ Memory │ │ Printer │
└─────────┘ └─────────┘ └─────────┘
↓
┌─────────┐
│ STORAGE │
│ (HDD/ │
│ SSD) │
└─────────┘

1.2 COMMON HARDWARE COMPONENTS

Hardware refers to the physical, tangible parts of a computer system.
Diagram 62: Computer Hardware Components
COMPLETE COMPUTER SYSTEM

MONITOR

1
 ┌────────┐
│ Screen │ ← Display output
│ │
└───┬────┘
│
┌──────────────┴──────────────┐
│ │
KEYBOARD MOUSE
┌────────┐ ┌────────┐
│⌨⌨⌨⌨⌨⌨⌨│ ← Input │ ○ │ ← Pointing
└────────┘ devices │ ╱│╲ │ device
└────────┘

SYSTEM UNIT (Tower)

┌─────────────────┐
│ │
│ ┌──────────┐ │ ← Motherboard
│ │ CPU │ │ (connects all)
│ └──────────┘ │
│ │
│ ┌──────────┐ │
│ │ RAM │ │ ← Temporary memory
│ └──────────┘ │
│ │
│ ┌──────────┐ │
│ │ HDD/SSD │ │ ← Permanent storage
│ └──────────┘ │
│ │
└─────────────────┘

ADDITIONAL DEVICES

SCANNER GRAPHICS TABLET

┌─────────┐ ┌──────────────┐
│╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲ │ │ ╱│╲ │
│ Paper │ ← Digitizes │ ╱ │ ╲ ○ │ ← Precise
│ Input │ drawings │ Stylus Pad │ drawing
└─────────┘ └──────────────┘

PLOTTER PRINTER
┌─────────────────┐ ┌──────────┐
│ ═══════════════ │ │ ▓▓▓▓▓▓ │
│ Large Format │ │ ▓▓▓▓▓▓ │ ← Small
│ Technical │ │ ▓▓▓▓▓▓ │ format
│ Drawings │ │ ▓▓▓▓▓▓ │
│ (A0, A1, A2) │ └──────────┘
└─────────────────┘ (A4, A3)

2
A. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
The "brain" of the computer that executes all instructions.
Diagram 63: CPU Function
CPU OPERATION

Instructions → ┌──────────┐ → Results

Data → │ CPU │ → Calculations
│ (Core) │
│ │
│ Speed: │
│ GHz │
└──────────┘
↓
HEAT ≈≈≈
(Needs cooling)

EXAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS:
• Intel Core i7
• AMD Ryzen 9
• Speed: 3.5 GHz
• Cores: 8 (multi-tasking)

B. MEMORY (RAM)
Random Access Memory - temporary "workspace" for active programs and data.
Diagram 64: RAM vs Storage
RAM (Temporary) STORAGE (Permanent)
┌─────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐
│ Active │ │ Saved │
│ Programs │ │ Files │
│ & Data │ │ Documents │
│ │ │ Drawings │
│ FAST ⚡ │ │ │
│ VOLATILE │ │ SLOW │
│ (Lost when │ │ PERMANENT │
│ power off) │ │ (Retained) │
└─────────────┘ └──────────────┘

MORE RAM =
• Smoother performance
• Handle larger drawings
• Run multiple programs
• Less lag/freezing

3
TYPICAL SIZES:
• Basic: 4-8 GB
• Professional CAD: 16-32 GB
• Advanced 3D: 64+ GB

C. STORAGE DEVICES
Diagram 65: HDD vs SSD Comparison
HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD) SOLID STATE DRIVE (SSD)
Traditional Modern

┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐
│ ╱─────╲ │ │ ▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓ │
│ │Platter│ │ │ ▓ Flash ▓ │
│ ╲─────╱ │ │ ▓ Memory ▓ │
│ ↻ │ │ ▓ Chips ▓ │
│ Spinning │ │ ▓ (No ▓ │
│ Magnetic │ │ ▓ Moving ▓ │
│ Disk │ │ ▓ Parts) ▓ │
└──────────────┘ └──────────────┘

SPEED: SPEED: ⚡ ⚡ ⚡
DURABILITY: Fragile DURABILITY: Robust
COST: Cheap COST: Expensive
CAPACITY: Large CAPACITY: Moderate
NOISE: Audible NOISE: Silent

BEST FOR CAD: SSD (Operating System + CAD Software)

HDD (Archived drawings storage)

D. INPUT DEVICES
Diagram 66: Input Devices for Technical Drawing
1. STANDARD MOUSE
┌────────┐
│ ○ L R │ ← Left/Right buttons
│ ╱│╲ │ ← Scroll wheel
└────────┘
• Point and click
• Basic drawing
• Budget-friendly

2. 3D MOUSE (SpaceMouse)

4
 ┌────────┐
│ ⊕ │ ← 6-axis control
│ ╱ │ ╲ │ ← Navigate 3D
└────────┘
• 3D navigation
• Professional CAD
• Rotate/pan/zoom

3. GRAPHICS TABLET
┌──────────────────┐
│ Active │
│ Drawing │
│ Surface ○ │ ← Stylus/Pen
│ │
│ Pressure │
│ Sensitive │
└──────────────────┘
• Freehand sketching
• Precise control
• Pressure levels: 2048-8192

4. KEYBOARD
┌─────────────────────┐
│ ⎋ F1 F2... ⌫ │
│ ` 1 2 3 4... ⌦ │
│ Q W E R T... ↵ │
│ A S D F G... │
│ Z X C V... ⇧ │
└─────────────────────┘
• Command shortcuts
• Text input
• CAD hotkeys

5. SCANNER (Wide-Format)
┌─────────────────────┐
│ ▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓ │
│ ╱─────────────────╲ │
│ │ Drawing │ │ ← Feeds large
│ ╲─────────────────╱ │ drawings
└─────────────────────┘
• Digitize paper drawings
• Convert to CAD
• Archive old drawings

E. OUTPUT DEVICES
Diagram 67: Output Devices Comparison

5
1. MONITOR (Display)

TYPES:
┌─────────────┐ ┌─────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐
│ Standard │ │ Wide │ │ Curved │
│ 16:9 │ │ Ultrawide │ │ Immersive │
│ │ │ 21:9 │ │ │
│ 24-27" │ │ 34-38" │ │ 32-49" │
└─────────────┘ └─────────────┘ └──────────────┘

KEY SPECIFICATIONS:
• Resolution: 1920×1080 (Full HD)
3840×2160 (4K)
• Panel: IPS (best colors)
TN (fast response)
• Size: 27" minimum for CAD
Dual monitors recommended

2. PLOTTER (Large-Format Printer)

┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ ═══════════════════════════ │ ← Paper roll
│ │
│ Print Head → │
│ ▼▼▼▼▼▼▼ │
│ ████████████████████ │ ← Drawing
│ │
│ Width: 24", 36", 44", 60" │
│ Length: Continuous roll │
└─────────────────────────────┘

TYPES:
• Inkjet Plotter (Color, detailed)
• Pen Plotter (Traditional, precise lines)
• Laser Plotter (Fast, monochrome)

PAPER SIZES SUPPORTED:

┌──────┬──────────────┬─────────┐
│ SIZE │ DIMENSIONS │ USE │
├──────┼──────────────┼─────────┤
│ A4 │ 210 × 297mm │ Letters │
│ A3 │ 297 × 420mm │ Small │
│ A2 │ 420 × 594mm │ Plans │
│ A1 │ 594 × 841mm │ Details │
│ A0 │ 841×1189mm │ Large │
└──────┴──────────────┴─────────┘

6
3. REGULAR PRINTER
┌────────────┐
│ ▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓ │
│ ▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓ │ ← A4/A3 only
│ ▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓ │
└────────────┘
• Office documents
• Small printouts
• Not for technical drawings

1.3 PARTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

A complete system consists of four components working together:
Diagram 68: The Four Components
COMPLETE COMPUTER SYSTEM

1. HARDWARE 2. SOFTWARE
(Physical) (Instructions)
↓ ↓
┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐
│ Monitor │ │ Windows │
│ CPU │ │ AutoCAD │
│ Mouse │ │ Revit │
│ Printer │ │ MS Word │
└────┬────┘ └────┬────┘
│ │
└──────────┬─────────────┘
↓
┌───────────────┐
│ │
│ 3. USER │
│ (Operator) │
│ │
└───────┬───────┘
↓
┌───────────────┐
│ 4. DATA │
│ (Information)│
│ • Drawings │
│ • Dimensions │
│ • Text │
└───────────────┘

ALL FOUR MUST WORK TOGETHER!

7
Software Categories:
Diagram 69: Software Hierarchy
SOFTWARE STRUCTURE

┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) │
│ (Foundation layer) │
│ │
│ • Windows 10/11 │
│ • macOS │
│ • Linux (Ubuntu) │
│ │
│ Manages: │
│ • Hardware resources │
│ • File system │
│ • Security │
└──────────┬─────────────────────┘
│
↓
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ APPLICATION SOFTWARE │
│ (Programs you use) │
│ │
│ CAD SOFTWARE: │
│ • AutoCAD (2D/3D) │
│ • Revit (BIM) │
│ • SolidWorks (3D Mech) │
│ • SketchUp (3D Arch) │
│ │
│ OFFICE SOFTWARE: │
│ • MS Word (Documents) │
│ • MS Excel (Spreadsheets) │
│ • Adobe PDF Reader │
│ │
│ UTILITIES: │
│ • Antivirus │
│ • File compression │
│ • System maintenance │
└────────────────────────────────┘

1.4 USING COMPUTERS FOR DESIGN

Diagram 70: Design Applications by Field
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(Buildings) (Machines/Parts)

8
┌─────────────────┐ ┌─────────────────┐
│ Floor Plans │ │ Part Design │
│ Elevations │ │ Assemblies │
│ Sections │ │ 3D Models │
│ 3D Models │ │ Simulations │
│ │ │ │
│ SOFTWARE: │ │ SOFTWARE: │
│ • Revit │ │ • SolidWorks │
│ • ArchiCAD │ │ • Inventor │
│ • AutoCAD Arch │ │ • CATIA │
│ • SketchUp │ │ • Fusion 360 │
└─────────────────┘ └─────────────────┘

CIVIL ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL DESIGN

(Infrastructure) (Circuits/Systems)

┌─────────────────┐ ┌─────────────────┐
│ Roads │ │ Schematics │
│ Bridges │ │ PCB Design │
│ Dams │ │ Wiring │
│ Site Plans │ │ Layouts │
│ │ │ │
│ SOFTWARE: │ │ SOFTWARE: │
│ • Civil 3D │ │ • AutoCAD Elec │
│ • Bentley │ │ • EPLAN │
│ • 12d Model │ │ • Eagle │
│ • Infraworks │ │ • Altium │
└─────────────────┘ └─────────────────┘

1.5 INTRODUCTION TO CAD APPLICATIONS

CAD = Computer-Aided Design (or Computer-Aided Drafting)

Diagram 71: CAD Evolution

DRAWING EVOLUTION

1950s-1980s 1980s-2000s 2000s-Present

MANUAL DRAWING → 2D CAD → 3D CAD + BIM

Drawing Board AutoCAD Revit/BIM

T-Square 2D Lines 3D Models
Pencils/Pens Layers Database
Physical Storage Digital Files Cloud Storage

9
┌──────────┐ ┌──────────┐ ┌──────────┐
│ Paper │ │ Computer │ │ Cloud │
│ & │ → │ Screen │ → │ Collab │
│ Pencil │ │ & CAD │ │ & 3D │
└──────────┘ └──────────┘ └──────────┘

Slow Faster Fastest

Difficult Edit Easy Edit Intelligent
Physical Only Digital Everywhere

Popular CAD Software:

Diagram 72: CAD Software Comparison
┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ MAJOR CAD PLATFORMS │
├──────────────┬───────────────────────────────────┤
│ AutoCAD │ • Industry standard │
│ │ • 2D drafting + 3D modeling │
│ ┌─────┐ │ • General purpose │
│ │ ═══ │ │ • Architecture, Mech, Civil │
│ └─────┘ │ • .DWG file format │
├──────────────┼───────────────────────────────────┤
│ Revit │ • Building Information Modeling │
│ │ • Intelligent 3D building design │
│ ┌─────┐ │ • Automatic coordination │
│ │ ███ │ │ • Architecture focused │
│ └─────┘ │ • .RVT file format │
├──────────────┼───────────────────────────────────┤
│ SolidWorks │ • 3D mechanical design │
│ │ • Parametric modeling │
│ ┌─────┐ │ • Assembly & parts │
│ │ ⚙ │ │ • Manufacturing focus │
│ └─────┘ │ • .SLDPRT/.SLDASM files │
├──────────────┼───────────────────────────────────┤
│ SketchUp │ • Easy 3D modeling │
│ │ • Intuitive interface │
│ ┌─────┐ │ • Quick conceptual design │
│ │ ▲ │ │ • Free version available │
│ └─────┘ │ • .SKP file format │
├──────────────┼───────────────────────────────────┤
│ ArchiCAD │ • BIM for architects │
│ │ • European standard │
│ ┌─────┐ │ • Team collaboration │
│ │ █▓▒ │ │ • Detailed documentation │
│ └─────┘ │ • .PLA file format │
└──────────────┴───────────────────────────────────┘

10
Benefits of CAD:
Diagram 73: CAD vs Manual Drawing
┌────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ CAD ADVANTAGES │
├────────────────────────────────────────────────┤

1. SPEED ⚡ ⚡ ⚡
Manual: Draw window 100 times → 100× effort
CAD: Draw once, COPY 100 times → 1× effort

2. ACCURACY
Manual: ±0.5mm (at best)
CAD: ±0.001mm (perfect precision)

3. EDITING
Manual: Erase → Messy → Redraw
[Before] [After - damaged]
┌─────┐ ┌─╱╲──┐
│ │ → │╱XXX╲│
└─────┘ └─────┘

CAD: SELECT → MOVE → DONE

[Before] [After - perfect]
┌─────┐ ┌─────┐
│ │ → │ │
└─────┘ └─────┘

4. STORAGE
Manual: 100 drawings = Large cabinet
• Fire risk
• Water damage
• Pest damage
• Takes space

CAD: 1000s drawings = Small USB

• Cloud backup
• Searchable
• Portable

5. SHARING
Manual: Plot → Package → Courier → Days
CAD: Email/Cloud → Instant → Seconds

6. VISUALIZATION
Manual: 2D only (Plan, Elevation, Section)
Isometric = Very difficult

11
 CAD: Easy 3D viewing
• Rotate any angle
• Walkthroughs
• Realistic rendering
• VR experiences

7. COLLABORATION
Manual: One person, one time
CAD: Multiple people, simultaneously
• Cloud-based
• Version control
• Track changes

8. STANDARDIZATION
Manual: Varies by draughtsman
CAD: • Blocks/Templates
• Consistent symbols
• Company standards
• Quality control
└────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Real-World CAD Workflow:

Diagram 74: Typical CAD Project Workflow

PROJECT LIFECYCLE

1. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
┌──────────┐
│ Sketches │ ← Hand sketches
│ Ideas │ Brainstorming
└────┬─────┘
↓
2. 2D CAD DRAFTING
┌──────────┐
│Floor Plan│ ← AutoCAD
│Elevation │ Precise 2D
│Section │ Dimensions
└────┬─────┘
↓
3. 3D MODELING
┌──────────┐
│3D Model │ ← Revit/SketchUp
│Rendering │ Visualization
│Materials │ Client review
└────┬─────┘
↓
12
4. ANALYSIS & TESTING
┌──────────┐
│Structure │ ← Simulation
│Energy │ Testing
│Cost │ Optimization
└────┬─────┘
↓
5. DOCUMENTATION
┌──────────┐
│Working │ ← Complete set
│Drawings │ Construction
│Details │ documents
└────┬─────┘
↓
6. CONSTRUCTION
┌──────────┐
│On-site │ ← Digital tablets
│Building │ Real-time updates
│Handover │ As-built drawings
└──────────┘

EVALUATION
1. What is the difference between hardware and software? Give two examples of each.

2. What is the specific name for a large-format printer used for technical drawings?

3. Define "CAD" in full and list four major benefits it has over manual drawing.

4. Explain the difference between RAM and Storage (HDD/SSD).

5. What is the function of the CPU in a computer system?

6. Name three CAD software programs and state what they are primarily used for.

7. Why is an SSD preferred over an HDD for running CAD software?

ASSIGNMENT
Part 1: Research Task
1. Research ONE CAD application (choose from: AutoCAD, Revit, SolidWorks, or SketchUp).
2. Write a paragraph (8-10 lines) covering:

o What is the software used for?

o Key features (at least 3)
o File formats it uses
13
 o Industries that use it
o One advantage over other software
Part 2: Hardware Identification
3. Create a table listing:
┌─────────────────┬──────┬──────┬─────────────┐
│ DEVICE │ TYPE │ I/O │ FUNCTION │
├─────────────────┼──────┼──────┼─────────────┤
│ Example: Mouse │ Hard │Input │ Pointing │
├─────────────────┼──────┼──────┼─────────────┤
│ 1. Monitor │ │ │ │
│ 2. Keyboard │ │ │ │
│ 3. CPU │ │ │ │
│ 4. Scanner │ │ │ │
│ 5. Plotter │ │ │ │
│ 6. RAM │ │ │ │
│ 7. HDD/SSD │ │ │ │
│ 8. Graphics Tab │ │ │ │
└─────────────────┴──────┴──────┴─────────────┘

TYPE: Hardware or Software

I/O: Input, Output, Processing, or Storage

Part 3: Visit & Report

4. If possible, visit a computer lab or design office in your area.
5. List the hardware you observed being used for CAD work.
6. Note: What CAD software was installed?

14
WEEK 2: ARCHES
2.1 MEANING OF ARCHES
An arch is a curved structural element that spans an opening and supports the load above it. It
is one of the oldest and most elegant structural solutions in architecture and civil engineering.
Diagram 75: Arch Concept
HOW AN ARCH WORKS

LOAD (Weight from above)

↓↓↓↓↓↓↓
╱──────╲
╱ ARCH ╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
╱ Keystone ╲
╱ at top ╲
╱ ╲
╱ Voussoirs ╲
╱ (wedge blocks) ╲
╱________________________╲
│← THRUST (outward →│
│ pushing force) │
▼ ▼
ABUTMENT ABUTMENT
(Support wall) (Support wall)

PRINCIPLE:
Vertical load → Converts to →
Diagonal compression through arch →
Horizontal thrust to supports

2.2 IMPORTANCE OF ARCHES

Diagram 76: Why Arches Matter
1. STRUCTURAL STRENGTH

LINTEL (Straight beam) ARCH (Curved)

Load ↓↓↓↓↓ Load ↓↓↓↓↓

═════════ ╱───────╲
│ │ ╱ ╲
│ │ ╱ Stronger! ╲
▼ ▼ ═════════════

15
 • Bends in middle • Distributes load
• Limited span • Wider span possible
• Weak • Very strong

2. SPANNING CAPABILITY

Small blocks/bricks → Large opening

Individual Assembled
Voussoirs into Arch
╱╲ ╱────╲
│ │ ╱ ╱╲ ╲
│ │ → ╱ ╱ ╲ ╲
╲ ╱ ╱ ╱ ╲ ╲
╲╱ ═══════════════
WIDE SPAN!

3. AESTHETIC BEAUTY

Famous Arches:
• Roman Colosseum (72 AD)
• Gothic Cathedrals (1200s)
• Islamic Architecture
• Modern bridges

4. MATERIAL EFFICIENCY

Uses: • Stone • Brick • Concrete

No need for:
• Large single beams
• Complex reinforcement
• Expensive materials

2.3 KEY TERMINOLOGY OF A STONE ARCH

16
Diagram 77: Arch Terminology (Comprehensive)
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ EXTRADOS (Outer curve) │
╱┴────────────────────────────┴───╲
╱ ↓ KEYSTONE ↓ ╲
╱ ╱─────────────╲ ╲
╱ │ CROWN │ ╲
╱ VOUSSOIR (Wedge-shaped blocks) ╲
│╱────────────────────────────────────────╲│
││ ││ ARCH RING
││ INTRADOS (Inner curve) │││ (Thickness)
│╰────────────────────────────────────────╯│
│ │
│←─────────── SPAN ──────────────────────→ │
│ │
│ ↑ RISE ↑ │
│ │ │ │
├──────────────┴──────┴────────────────────┤
│◄ SPRINGING LINE (Where curve starts) │
│ │
├──SPRINGER──┘ └──SPRINGER───┤
│ (First stone) (First stone) │
│ │
│ SPANDREL │
│ (Space above arch) │
│ │
▼ ▼
ABUTMENT ABUTMENT
(Support pillar/wall) (Support pillar/wall)
Resists horizontal thrust Resists horizontal thrust

DEFINITIONS:

1. SPAN: Clear horizontal distance of opening

(Measured at springing line)

2. RISE: Vertical height from springing line

to highest point (crown/keystone)

3. SPRINGING LINE: Imaginary horizontal line

where arch curve begins

4. SPRINGER: First voussoir at each end

(Sits on abutment)

5. VOUSSOIR: Wedge-shaped stone/brick block

17
 (French: "wedge")

6. KEYSTONE: Central top voussoir

Locks all others in place
(Often decorated)

7. INTRADOS: Inner concave surface

(Underside of arch)

8. EXTRADOS: Outer convex surface

(Top side of arch)

9. ABUTMENT: Vertical support structure

Resists horizontal thrust

10. CROWN: Highest point of arch

(At keystone)

11. ARCH RING: Structural thickness

(Depth of voussoirs)

12. SPANDREL: Triangular space between

arch and rectangular frame

Diagram 78: Forces in an Arch

STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR

Compressive Compressive
Forces Forces
↙ ↘ ↙ ↘
╱ ╲ ╱ ╲
╱ ◐ ◐ ◐ ╲
╱ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ╲
╱ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ╲
╱ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ╲
════════════════════════
│← Horizontal →│
│ Thrust │
▼ ▼

KEY PRINCIPLES:
• All forces are COMPRESSION
(stones being squeezed)
• NO tension (no pulling apart)
• NO bending (like a beam)

18
• Very efficient structure
• Can last thousands of years!

2.4 TYPES OF ARCHES

Diagram 79: Arch Types - Complete Guide
1. SEMICIRCULAR (ROMAN) ARCH
Most common traditional form

╱────╲
╱ • ╲ ← Center point
╱ │ ╲
╱ │R ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
════════┴════════
│←───Span───→│

Rise = Radius = Span/2

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Perfect semicircle (180°)
• Rise = 50% of span
• Very stable
• Even load distribution

USES:
• Roman aqueducts
• Colosseum
• Traditional bridges
• Classical buildings

2. POINTED (GOTHIC) ARCH

Medieval innovation

•
╱ ╲
╱ ╲ ← Two curve centers
╱ • ╲
╱ • ╲
╱ • ╲
╱ • ╲
════════════════

Two arcs meet at point

Centers outside arch

19
 CHARACTERISTICS:
• Sharp point at apex
• Rise > Span/2
• Directs loads vertically
• Less horizontal thrust

USES:
• Gothic cathedrals
• Churches
• Tall buildings
• Narrow openings

ADVANTAGE:
• Allows thinner walls
• Taller structures
• Large windows

3. SEGMENTAL ARCH
Shallow curve

╱────╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲ ← Segment of circle
╱ ╲ (less than 180°)
══════════════
• ← Center below
springing line

Rise < Span/2

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Shallow profile
• Rise = 15-30% of span
• Greater horizontal thrust
• Economy of height

USES:
• Bridge arches
• Low doorways
• Windows
• Modern applications

ADVANTAGE:
• Saves vertical space
• Less material needed

20
4. HORSESHOE ARCH
Islamic/Moorish style

╱──╲
╱ ╲
│ │ ← Curves inward
│ │ past vertical
╰ ╯
══════════

Curves more than 180°

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Exceeds semicircle
• Curves >180°
• Decorative appearance
• Cultural significance

USES:
• Islamic mosques
• Moorish palaces
• Alhambra, Spain
• North African arch.

5. FLAT (JACK) ARCH

Appears flat

╱────────────╲ Slight curve

╱ ╲ in voussoirs
═══════════════

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Looks horizontal
• Wedge-shaped blocks
• Flat intrados
• Weak structure

USES:
• Decorative lintels
• Windows
• Doorways
• Non-load-bearing

NOTE:
• Not true arch
• Less structural
• Mainly aesthetic

21
6. ELLIPTICAL ARCH
Oval shape

╱────╲
╱ ╲
│ │ ← Ellipse
│ │ (not circle)
═══════════

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Oval/ellipse shape
• Rise can vary
• Aesthetic appeal
• Complex construction

USES:
• Renaissance bridges
• Decorative features
• Modern architecture

7. PARABOLIC ARCH
Modern engineering

╱──╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲ ← Parabola curve
╱ ╲ (mathematical)
════════════

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Mathematical curve
• Ideal load distribution
• Modern materials
• Efficient structure

USES:
• Modern bridges
• Long spans
• Concrete arches
• Steel structures

8. TUDOR ARCH (Four-CENTERED)

English style

╱╲
╱ ╲
│ │ ← Four curve centers

22
 ╱ ╲ (two per side)
╱ ╲
═══════════

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Flattened point
• Four arc centers
• Wide, low opening
• Decorative

USES:
• Tudor buildings
• English architecture
• 15th-16th century

Diagram 80: Arch Comparison Chart

┌────────────┬──────────┬──────────┬─────────────┐
│ TYPE │ RISE │ STRENGTH │ TYPICAL │
│ │ /SPAN │ RATING │ USE │
├────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼─────────────┤
│Semicircular│ 50% │ ★★★★★ │Traditional │
│ (Roman) │ (1:2) │ │ buildings │
├────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼─────────────┤
│ Pointed │ >50% │ ★★★★★ │Cathedrals, │
│ (Gothic) │ (varies)│ │tall openings│
├────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼─────────────┤
│ Segmental │ 15-30% │ ★★★ │ Bridges, │
│ │ (<1:2) │ │ windows │
├────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼─────────────┤
│ Horseshoe │ >50% │ ★★★★ │ Islamic │
│ │ (>180°) │ │architecture │
├────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼─────────────┤
│ Flat │ ~5% │ ★★ │ Decorative │
│ (Jack) │(minimal) │ │ lintels │
├────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼─────────────┤
│Elliptical │ 30-40% │ ★★★★ │Renaissance, │
│ │ (varies) │ │ bridges │
├────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼─────────────┤
│ Parabolic │ varies │ ★★★★★ │ Modern │
│ │(optimized│ │ bridges │
└────────────┴──────────┴──────────┴─────────────┘

2.5 CONSTRUCTION OF ARCHES

Diagram 81: Arch Construction Process
23
STEP 1: BUILD CENTERING (Temporary support)

╱────────╲
╱ Wood ╲ ← Temporary wooden
╱ Frame ╲ framework (centering)
╱ Support ╲
════════════════
│ │
│ Falsework │
│ (props) │

STEP 2: LAY VOUSSOIRS

╱─1─2─3─╲
╱ 4 5 6 ╲ ← Place wedge-shaped
╱ 7 8 9 ╲ blocks from both
╱ 10 11 12 13 ╲ ends toward center
════════════════
Start from Work toward
both ends center

STEP 3: INSERT KEYSTONE

╱───KEY───╲ ← Final piece

╱ Voussoirs ╲ locks arch
╱ in place ╲
╱ ╲
════════════════
Arch now
self-supporting

STEP 4: REMOVE CENTERING

╱─────────╲
╱ ARCH ╲ ← Now supports
╱ stands ╲ itself!
╱ alone ╲
════════════════
Remove wooden
framework

24
2.6 IDENTIFYING ARCHES IN BUILDINGS
Practical Exercise:
Look for arches in your community:
 Churches/Mosques - Often have pointed or horseshoe arches
 Old bridges - Usually semicircular or segmental
 Government buildings - May have Roman-style arches
 Modern buildings - Might have parabolic or flat arches
 Doorways/Windows - Various types
Take photos and sketch the arches you find!

EVALUATION
1. Explain the primary structural function of an arch. How does it convert forces?

2. What is the "keystone," and why is it important to the arch's stability?

3. What is the difference in shape between a Roman (semicircular) arch and a Segmental arch?

4. Define "Span" and "Rise." What is the ratio of rise to span in a semicircular arch?

5. Sketch and label: Voussoir, Keystone, Intrados, Extrados, Abutment.

6. Why did Gothic architects prefer pointed arches over Roman arches for cathedrals?

7. What type of arch would you use for a low bridge where height is limited?

ASSIGNMENT
Part 1: Drawing Practice
1. On a drawing sheet (A4), using compass and ruler:

o Draw a Semicircular Arch with:

 Span = 100mm
 Show construction (center point, radius)
 Label: Span, Rise, Keystone position
2. On the same sheet, draw a Pointed (Gothic) Arch with:

o Same span = 100mm

o Two curve centers (show construction)
o Label: Span, Rise, Arc centers
Part 2: Labeling Exercise
25
 3. Sketch a complete arch showing:
o Keystone
o Voussoirs (at least 7)
o Springer (both sides)
o Springing Line
o Intrados
o Extrados
o Abutments
o Span dimension
o Rise dimension
Part 3: Research Task
4. Find and photograph (or sketch) THREE different arches in your local area:
o Identify the type of each arch
o Note the building/structure name
o Estimate the span (approximate)
o State the probable date of construction
o Explain why that particular arch type was chosen
Example format:
ARCH SURVEY REPORT

Arch 1: St. Mary's Church Entrance

Type: Pointed (Gothic) Arch
Span: Approximately 2.5m
Date: Estimated 1920s
Reason: Creates tall, grand entrance;
traditional church architecture

26
WEEK 3: ROOFS
3.1 MEANING OF ROOF
A roof is the uppermost structural covering of a building that serves multiple critical functions:
Primary Functions:
1. Protection - From rain, sun, wind, snow
2. Insulation - Temperature and sound control
3. Aesthetics - Defines building appearance
4. Structural - Completes building envelope
Diagram 82: Roof Functions
ROOF FUNCTIONS

SUN PROTECTION RAIN PROTECTION

↓ ↓
╱───────────────────╲
╱ ╲
╱ INSULATION ╲
╱ (Heat/Cold barrier) ╲
╱___________________________╲
│ │
│ LIVING SPACE │
│ (Protected environment) │
│ │
═════════════════════════════

WIND RESISTANCE AESTHETIC APPEAL

3.2 ROOF TERMINOLOGY (ROOF MEMBERS)

Understanding roof components is essential for reading building sections and constructing roofs
properly.

27
Diagram 83: Complete Roof Structure - King Post Truss
ROOF STRUCTURE COMPONENTS

Ridge Board
↓
╱─────┴─────╲
╱ RIDGE ╲
╱ ╲
╱ Rafter ╲ ← Common Rafter
╱ (Principal) ╲ (Main sloped beam)
╱ ╲
╱ │King ╲
╱ │Post ╲
╱ │(Vertical) ╲
│ Strut│ │Strut │ ← Strut
│ ╱ │ │ ╲ │ (Diagonal brace)
│ ╱ │ │ ╲ │
│ ╱ │ │ ╲ │
│ ╱ │ │ ╲ │
│══════════╧══╧═══════════ │ ← Tie Beam
│ (Bottom chord) │ (Horizontal)
│ │
├────────────────────────────┤ ← Wall Plate
│░░░░░░WALL░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ (Timber on wall top)
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│
│ │

OUTSIDE VIEW

Roof Covering ▼
║║║║║║║║║║║║║ ← Roofing sheets
═══Purlin═══ ← Purlin (Horizontal)
╱│╲ supports covering
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Rafter
╱ │ ╲
╱════╧════╲
│ Eaves │ ← Eaves (Overhang)
│ │ │
│ Fascia │ ← Fascia (Vertical board)
│ ╱ │ ╲ │
│ Soffit │ ← Soffit (Underside)
└───────────┘

Detailed Component Definitions:

Diagram 84: Roof Members - Individual Components

28
1. TRUSS
Complete triangular framework

╱──╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Self-supporting
╱ │ ╲ rigid frame
╱════╧═════╲

Types: King Post, Queen Post,

Fink, Howe, Scissors

2. TIE BEAM
Bottom horizontal member

╱ ╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
═════TENSION═════ ← Resists outward
thrust of rafters
Function: Prevents walls
from spreading

3. RAFTER
Main sloped beam

│ ← Common Rafter
│ (Eaves to Ridge)
│
│ ← Hip Rafter
╱ (Corner to Ridge)
╱
╱ ← Valley Rafter
(Internal corner)

4. RIDGE BOARD/RIDGE
Peak of roof

═══ ← Ridge Board

╱ ╲ (Rafters meet here)
╱ ╲
╱ ╲

5. KING POST
Central vertical member
29
 ╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲ ← King Post
╱ │ ╲ (Ridge to Tie Beam)
╱════╧════╲

Function: Supports ridge

Prevents sag

6. QUEEN POSTS
Two vertical members

╱─╲
╱ ╲
╱│ │╲ ← Queen Posts
╱ │ │ ╲ (Creates attic space)
╱══╧═══╧══╲

7. STRUT
Diagonal brace

╱│╲
╱╱│╲╲ ← Struts
╱ ╱│╲ ╲ (Support rafters)
╱══╧═╧══╲

Function: Prevent rafter sag

Transfer loads

8. PURLIN
Horizontal beam on rafters

║║║║║║║║ ← Roofing sheets

═Purlin═ ← Sits on top of
│ rafters/trusses
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Rafters
╱══╧══╲

Function: Support roofing

Reduce rafter span

9. WALL PLATE

30
 Timber on wall top

╱ ╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
├──────────┤ ← Wall Plate
│░░WALL░░░░│ (Distributes load)
│░░░░░░░░░░│

Function: • Transfer roof load

• Base for rafters
• Level bearing

10. EAVES
Roof overhang

╱──────╲
╱ ╲
╱ ╲────── ← Eaves
│ │ (Overhang)
│ WALL │

Purpose: • Protect walls

• Direct water away
• Shade windows

11. FASCIA
Vertical board at eaves

╱────╲
╱ ╲
╱ ║ ← Fascia Board
│ ║ (Vertical)
│ WALL ║

Function: • Finish eaves

• Gutter attachment
• Weather protection

12. SOFFIT
Underside of eaves

╱────╲
╱ ╲____
│ ═════ ← Soffit
│ (Horizontal underside)
31
 │ WALL

Function: • Close eaves

• Ventilation
• Pest protection

13. BARGEBOARD
Gable end trim

╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Bargeboard
║ │ ║ (Covers gable
║ GABLE ║ rafter ends)
║ END ║
└───────┘

14. CEILING JOIST

Supports ceiling

╱────────╲
╱ ╲
╱════Joist══ ╲ ← Ceiling Joist
├─────────────┤ (Under tie beam
│ CEILING │ or separate)
│ │

3.3 TYPES OF ROOFS (DESIGN)

Diagram 85: Roof Types - Comprehensive Guide
1. FLAT ROOF
Horizontal or slight slope

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

┌─────────┐ ┌─────────┐
│ │ │▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓│
│ ROOM │ │▓Flat▓▓▓▓│
│ │ │▓Roof▓▓▓▓│
└─────────┘ └─────────┘

Slope: 1-5° (for drainage)

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Modern appearance

32
 • Usable roof space
• Simple construction
• Lower initial cost

USES:
• Commercial buildings
• Modern homes
• Low rainfall areas
• Urban architecture

MATERIALS:
• Bitumen membrane
• PVC membrane
• Concrete

ADVANTAGES:
• Additional space (terrace)
• Easy maintenance access
• HVAC equipment platform

DISADVANTAGES:
• Poor drainage
• Requires maintenance
• Not ideal for heavy rain

2. SHED ROOF (Lean-to)

Single slope

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

╱──────── ┌─────────┐
╱ │ │ ↙ │
╱ ROOM │ │ Slope │
╱ │ │ │
───────────── └─────────┘

One sloped surface

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Simple design
• Economical
• Single direction slope
• Easy construction

USES:
• Additions/extensions
• Sheds/outbuildings
• Verandas/porches
• Modern architecture

33
 ADVANTAGES:
• Low cost
• Quick construction
• Good water runoff
• Maximizes one wall height

DISADVANTAGES:
• Limited attic space
• Asymmetrical appearance

3. GABLE ROOF (Pitched)

Classic triangular

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

╱╲ ┌─────────┐
╱ ╲ │ │ │
╱ ╲ │ Ridge │
╱ ROOM ╲ │ │ │
╱________╲ └─────────┘
│ │ ↑
Gable End Ridge line
(Triangle)

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Two sloping sides
• Triangular ends (gables)
• Ridge at center
• Most common type

USES:
• Residential houses
• Traditional buildings
• Worldwide standard
• All climates

ADVANTAGES:
• Excellent water drainage
• Attic/storage space
• Natural ventilation
• Simple construction
• Cost-effective

DISADVANTAGES:
• Vulnerable in high winds
• Gable ends need bracing

34
4. HIP ROOF
Four sloped sides

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

╱──╲ ┌─╲───╱─┐
╱ ╲ │ ╲ ╱ │
╱ ROOM ╲ │ ╳ │ ← Hip lines
╱________╲ │ ╱ ╲ │ (Diagonal)
└─╱───╲─┘
No gable ↑
(All slopes) Ridge line

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Four sloping sides
• No vertical gable ends
• Hips at corners
• Self-bracing structure

USES:
• Residential houses
• High wind areas
• Coastal regions
• Traditional style

ADVANTAGES:
• Excellent wind resistance
• Even load distribution
• Self-supporting
• Aesthetic appeal
• All-round eaves

DISADVANTAGES:
• More complex framing
• Higher cost
• Less attic space
• Difficult construction

5. GAMBREL ROOF
Double slope (Barn roof)

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

┌──┐ ┌─────────┐
╱│ │╲ │ │ │
╱ └──┘ ╲ │ Ridge │
╱ ROOM ╲ │ │ │
╱__________╲ └─────────┘

Two slopes each side:

35
 • Steep lower
• Shallow upper

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Four slope surfaces
• Two angles per side
• Barn-style appearance
• Maximum attic space

USES:
• Barns
• Farm buildings
• Dutch Colonial homes
• Storage buildings

ADVANTAGES:
• Maximum usable attic
• Extra headroom
• Efficient space
• Traditional charm

DISADVANTAGES:
• Complex framing
• Higher maintenance
• Snow load on lower slope

6. MANSARD ROOF
French style (Four-sided gambrel)

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

┌──┐ ┌─┐─────┌─┐
╱│ │╲ │ │ │ │
╱ │ │ ╲ │ └─────┘ │
╱ └──┘ ╲ │ Mansard │
╱ ROOM ╲ │(4 sides)│
╱ ___________╲ └─────────┘

Double slope on all 4 sides

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Four-sided gambrel
• Steep lower slopes
• Flat or low-pitch top
• French architecture

USES:
• French buildings
• Victorian houses

36
• Urban townhouses
• Historic restoration

ADVANTAGES:
• Full extra floor
• Dormer windows
• Maximum space
• Elegant appearance

DISADVANTAGES:
• Very complex
• Expensive
• Local codes may restrict

7. BUTTERFLY ROOF
Inverted gable (V-shape)

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

╲ ╱ ┌─────────┐
╲ ╱ │ ╲ ╱ │
╲ROOM╱ │ ╲ ╱ │
╲ ╱ │ V │
╲╱ └─────────┘
Valley Valley
(Low point) (Center)

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Two slopes inward
• Center valley
• Modern design
• Opposite of gable

USES:
• Modern architecture
• Eco-friendly homes
• Desert climates
• Artistic designs

ADVANTAGES:
• Natural lighting
• Rainwater collection
• Unique appearance
• High ceilings

DISADVANTAGES:
• Water pooling risk
• Complex drainage
• Not for heavy rain

37
 • Higher maintenance

8. SALTBOX ROOF
Asymmetrical gable

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

╱╲ ┌─────────┐
╱ ╲____ │ │ │
╱ ROOM╲ │ Offset │
╱__________╲ │ Ridge │
└─────────┘
Long back slope

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Asymmetrical
• Long rear slope
• Short front slope
• Colonial American

USES:
• Colonial houses
• Traditional New England
• Historic buildings

ADVANTAGES:
• Extra rear space
• Snow sheds easily
• Unique character
• Weather protection

DISADVANTAGES:
• Uneven interior space
• Complex framing
• Less common

9. DOME ROOF
Hemispherical

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

╱─╲ ┌─────────┐
╱ ╲ │ ╱───╲ │
│ROOM │ │ │ ○ │ │
└─────┘ │ ╲───╱ │
└─────────┘
Circular structure Circular plan

CHARACTERISTICS:

38
 • Hemispherical shape
• No angles/ridges
• Strong structure
• Iconic appearance

USES:
• Mosques/churches
• Planetariums
• Sports arenas
• Observatory

ADVANTAGES:
• Very strong
• Minimal materials
• Energy efficient
• Unique aesthetics

DISADVANTAGES:
• Complex construction
• Specialized skills
• Interior space loss

10. SKILLION ROOF

Modern single slope

ELEVATION PLAN VIEW

╱──────── ┌─────────┐
╱ │ │ ↙ │
╱ ROOM │ │ Slope │
╱___________│ └─────────┘

Similar to shed but steeper

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Single steep slope
• Modern aesthetic
• Simple construction
• Efficient drainage

USES:
• Contemporary homes
• Additions
• Modern commercial

ADVANTAGES:
• Cost-effective
• Quick build
• Good drainage

39
 • Solar panel friendly

DISADVANTAGES:
• Limited ceiling height
• Less attic space

Diagram 86: Roof Type Selection Guide

┌──────────────┬─────────┬─────────┬────────────┐
│ ROOF TYPE │ CLIMATE │ COST │ COMPLEXITY │
├──────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼────────────┤
│ Flat │ Dry │ Low │ Simple │
│ Shed │ Any │Very Low │Very Simple │
│ Gable │ Any │ Low │ Simple │
│ Hip │ Windy │ Medium │ Medium │
│ Gambrel │ Moderate│ Medium │ Medium │
│ Mansard │ Urban │ High │ Complex │
│ Butterfly │ Dry/Mod │ Medium │ Medium │
│ Saltbox │ Cold │ Medium │ Medium │
│ Dome │ Any │ High │Very Complex│
│ Skillion │ Any │Very Low │Very Simple │
└──────────────┴─────────┴─────────┴────────────┘

RECOMMENDED FOR NIGERIA:

• Gable Roof - Most common, good drainage
• Hip Roof - Wind resistance (coastal areas)
• Shed Roof - Budget construction

3.4 DETERMINING ROOF PITCH

Pitch = Steepness/slope of the roof

40
Diagram 87: Roof Pitch Calculation
PITCH COMPONENTS

Ridge
•
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │R ╲
╱ │I ╲
╱ │S ╲
╱ │E ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱___________│___________╲
├────────────┴────────────┤
│←──────RUN─────→│
│←────────SPAN──────────→│

Wall Plate Wall Plate

DEFINITIONS:

SPAN: Total width of building

(Wall to wall)

RUN: Half of span

(Wall to center/ridge)
Run = Span ÷ 2

RISE: Vertical height

(Wall plate to ridge)

PITCH FORMULA:

Pitch = Rise ÷ Run

WORKED EXAMPLES:

Example 1:
Building span = 10m

41
Rise = 2.5m

Step 1: Calculate Run

Run = Span ÷ 2
Run = 10m ÷ 2 = 5m

Step 2: Calculate Pitch

Pitch = Rise ÷ Run
Pitch = 2.5m ÷ 5m
Pitch = 0.5 (or 1:2 or 50%)

Example 2:
Span = 8m
Rise = 3m

Run = 8m ÷ 2 = 4m
Pitch = 3m ÷ 4m = 0.75
(or 3:4 or 75%)

Example 3:
Span = 12m
Rise = 4m

Run = 12m ÷ 2 = 6m
Pitch = 4m ÷ 6m = 0.67
(or 2:3 or 67%)

Diagram 88: Pitch Expression Methods

EXPRESSING PITCH

1. AS RATIO
Rise : Run
Examples: 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:4

2. AS FRACTION
Rise/Run
Examples: 1/2, 1/3, 2/5, 3/4

3. AS DECIMAL
Rise ÷ Run
Examples: 0.5, 0.33, 0.4, 0.75

42
4. AS PERCENTAGE
(Rise ÷ Run) × 100
Examples: 50%, 33%, 40%, 75%

5. AS ANGLE (Degrees)
θ = arctan(Rise ÷ Run)

Pitch → Angle
1:2 → 26.6°
1:3 → 18.4°
2:5 → 21.8°
3:4 → 36.9°
1:1 → 45°

6. AS "X-IN-12" (Common in USA)

X units rise per 12 units run

Pitch → X-in-12
1:2 → 6:12
1:3 → 4:12
2:5 → 4.8:12
3:4 → 9:12

VISUAL PITCH GUIDE

Very Flat (1:12 = 8.3%)

─────────────

Flat (2:12 = 16.7%)

╱──────────

Low (3:12 = 25%)

╱────────

Moderate (4:12 = 33%)

╱──────

Standard (6:12 = 50%)

╱────

Steep (9:12 = 75%)

╱──

43
Very Steep (12:12 = 100% = 45°)
╱

Diagram 89: Pitch Selection Guide

RECOMMENDED PITCH BY ROOFING MATERIAL

┌─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┐
│ MATERIAL │ MIN PITCH│IDEAL PITCH│
├─────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┤
│Corrugated │ 10° │ 15-30° │
│Aluminum/Iron │ (1:6) │ (1:4-1:2)│
├─────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┤
│Asphalt Shingles │ 15° │ 20-35° │
│ │ (1:4) │(1:3-1:1.5)│
├─────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┤
│Clay/Concrete │ 20° │ 30-40° │
│Tiles │ (1:3) │(1:2-1:1.2)│
├─────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┤
│Metal Roofing │ 5° │ 15-30° │
│(Standing seam) │ (1:12) │ (1:4-1:2)│
├─────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┤
│Thatch │ 45° │ 50-60° │
│ │ (1:1) │(1.2:1-1.7:1)│
├─────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┤
│Flat Roof │ 2° │ 3-5° │
│(Membrane) │ (1:30) │(1:20-1:12)│
└─────────────────┴───────────┴───────────┘

PITCH BY CLIMATE

Heavy Rainfall: Steep (>30°)

Fast water runoff

Moderate Rain: Standard (20-30°)

Good drainage

Light Rain: Low (10-20°)

Adequate drainage

Snow Areas: Very Steep (>45°)

Snow slides off

High Winds: Low to Moderate

Less wind resistance

44
Hot Climate: Steeper better
Attic ventilation

Diagram 90: Calculating Rafter Length

RAFTER LENGTH CALCULATION

Using Pythagoras Theorem

Ridge
•
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Rafter
╱ │R ╲ (Hypotenuse)
╱ │I ╲
╱ │S ╲
╱ │E ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱________│________╲
├─────────┴─────────┤
RUN

Formula:
Rafter Length² = Rise² + Run²

Rafter Length = √(Rise² + Run²)

WORKED EXAMPLE:

Given:
Span = 10m
Rise = 3m

Step 1: Find Run

Run = Span ÷ 2 = 10m ÷ 2 = 5m

Step 2: Calculate Rafter Length

Rafter² = Rise² + Run²
Rafter² = 3² + 5²
Rafter² = 9 + 25
Rafter² = 34
Rafter = √34
Rafter = 5.83m

45
Step 3: Add for overhang
If eaves overhang = 0.5m
Total Rafter = 5.83m + 0.5m
= 6.33m

QUICK REFERENCE TABLE

┌──────┬──────┬──────┬─────────────┐
│ SPAN │ RISE │ RUN │RAFTER LENGTH│
├──────┼──────┼──────┼─────────────┤
│ 8m │ 2m │ 4m │ 4.47m │
│ 8m │ 3m │ 4m │ 5.00m │
│ 10m │ 2.5m│ 5m │ 5.59m │
│ 10m │ 3m │ 5m │ 5.83m │
│ 12m │ 3m │ 6m │ 6.71m │
│ 12m │ 4m │ 6m │ 7.21m │
└──────┴──────┴──────┴─────────────┘
(Add overhang length)

3.5 ROOF TRUSS TYPES (DETAILED)

Diagram 91: Truss Types Comparison
1. KING POST TRUSS
Span: up to 8m

Ridge
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Rafter (Compression)
╱ │ ╲
╱ │King╲
╱ │Post ╲ ← King Post
╱ │(C) ╲ (Compression)
╱ Strut │Strut ╲
╱ ╱ │ ╲ ╲ ← Strut (Comp)
╱ ╱ │ ╲ ╲
═══════════╧═══════════ ← Tie Beam (Tension)

Components: 7 members
C = Compression
T = Tension

Advantages:
• Simple design
• Easy construction
• Cost-effective

46
• Proven strength

Uses:
• Small residential
• Garages
• Simple structures

2. QUEEN POST TRUSS

Span: 8-12m

Ridge
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱Queen│Queen╲
╱ Post│Post ╲ ← Queen Posts
╱ │ │ │ ╲
╱ │╲ │ ╱│ ╲
╱═════╧═╲═│═╱═╧═════╲
═╧═
Storage space

Components: 9 members

Advantages:
• Attic storage space
• Wider span
• Better for ceiling
• Strong structure

Uses:
• Medium residential
• Storage buildings
• Churches

3. FINK TRUSS (W-Truss)

Span: 8-15m

Ridge
│
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ ╱│╲ ╲
╱ ╱ │ ╲ ╲
╱ ╱ │ ╲ ╲ ← W-pattern

47
 ╱ ╱ │ ╲ ╲ (Web members)
╱══╱════╧════╲══╲

Components: 11+ members

Modern truss design

Advantages:
• Efficient material use
• Wide span capability
• Prefabricated
• Easy to install

Uses:
• Modern residential
• Commercial buildings
• Standardized construction

4. HOWE TRUSS
Span: 15-30m

Ridge
│
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱│ │ │╲
╱ │ │ │ ╲ ← Vertical members
╱ │╲│╱│ ╲ (Steel rods)
╱ │ ╳ │ ╲
╱════╧═╧═╧════╲

Components: 13+ members

Heavy-duty design

Advantages:
• Very strong
• Long span
• Heavy loads
• Industrial strength

Uses:
• Bridges
• Warehouses
• Large halls
• Industrial buildings

48
5. SCISSORS TRUSS
Span: 8-15m

Ridge
│
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ ╳ ╲ ← Crossed
╱ ╱ ╲ ╲ members
╱ ╱ ╲ ╲
╱══╱═════╲══╲ ← Raised tie

Vaulted ceiling space

Advantages:
• Cathedral ceiling
• Open interior
• Aesthetic appeal
• More headroom

Uses:
• Churches
• Modern homes
• Living rooms
• Great rooms

6. ATTIC TRUSS
Span: 8-12m

Ridge
│
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱┌──┴──┐╲ ← Attic room
╱ │ │ ╲ (living space)
╱ └─────┘ ╲
╱════════════╱╲

Room within truss

49
Advantages:
• Additional living space
• No separate ceiling needed
• Efficient design
• Cost-effective expansion

Uses:
• Residential attic rooms
• Guest rooms
• Storage + living

7. MONO TRUSS
Span: 4-10m

│
╱│
╱ │╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Single slope
╱ │ ╲
╱════╧═══╲

Half of a standard truss

Advantages:
• Simple
• Modern look
• Quick install
• Cost-effective

Uses:
• Additions
• Sheds
• Porches
• Modern architecture

8. GAMBREL TRUSS
Span: 8-15m

┌──┐
╱│ │╲
╱ │ │ ╲ ← Double angle
╱ └──┘ ╲ each side
╱══════════╲

Maximum attic space

50
Advantages:
• Barn-style
• Maximum storage
• Traditional look
• Efficient space use

Uses:
• Barns
• Farm buildings
• Storage buildings
• Dutch Colonial homes

Diagram 92: Truss Selection Guide

┌───────────────┬─────────┬──────────┬────────────┐
│ TRUSS TYPE │MAX SPAN │ USE CASE │ TYPICAL │
│ │ │ │ SPACING │
├───────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼────────────┤
│ King Post │ 8m │Small Res │ 0.6-1.0m │
│ Queen Post │ 12m │Medium Res│ 0.6-1.2m │
│ Fink (W) │ 15m │Std Res │ 0.6-1.2m │
│ Howe │ 30m │Commercial│ 1.2-2.0m │
│ Scissors │ 15m │Cathedral │ 0.6-1.2m │
│ Attic │ 12m │Extra Room│ 0.6-1.0m │
│ Mono │ 10m │Addition │ 0.6-1.0m │
│ Gambrel │ 15m │Barn/Store│ 1.0-1.5m │
└───────────────┴─────────┴──────────┴────────────┘

Res = Residential
Spacing = Distance between trusses

EVALUATION
1. What are the four primary functions of a roof?

2. Define "truss" and explain why triangular shapes are used.

3. What is the main visual difference between a "Gable Roof" and a "Hip Roof"? Which is better for high winds?

4. A building has a span of 8 metres and a roof rise of 2 metres. Calculate: a) The "run" of the roof b) The "pitch"
(as a ratio, decimal, and percentage) c) The approximate "rafter length" (without overhang)

5. List and sketch three different types of roof trusses. Label all major members.

6. What is the difference between a purlin and a rafter?

7. Explain the functions of: Tie Beam, King Post, Wall Plate, Fascia, Soffit.

51
 8. What roof pitch would you recommend for: a) Heavy rainfall area? b) High wind coastal area? c) Flat terrain
with moderate rain?

ASSIGNMENT
Part 1: Drawing Practice
1. On an A4 sheet, draw a Simple King Post Truss showing:
o Span = 8m (scale 1:100, so 80mm on paper)
o Rise = 2.5m (25mm on paper)
o Label ALL members:
 Ridge
 Rafter (both sides)
 King Post
 Struts (both sides)
 Tie Beam
 Wall Plate
o Add dimensions for span and rise
o Show forces: C (Compression) or T (Tension) on each member
Part 2: Roof Type Identification
2. Sketch the following roof types in BOTH elevation and plan view: a) Gable Roof (show
ridge line in plan) b) Hip Roof (show hip lines in plan) c) Shed Roof (show slope
direction in plan)
Part 3: Pitch Calculations
3. Complete this table with calculations:
┌──────┬──────┬─────┬───────┬─────────┬────────┐
│ SPAN │ RISE │ RUN │ PITCH │ PITCH │ RAFTER │
│ (m) │ (m) │ (m) │(Ratio)│ (%) │LENGTH │
├──────┼──────┼─────┼───────┼─────────┼────────┤
│ 10 │ 3 │ ? │ ? │ ? │ ? │
│ 12 │ 4 │ ? │ ? │ ? │ ? │
│ 8 │ 2 │ ? │ ? │ ? │ ? │
│ 14 │ 3.5 │ ? │ ? │ ? │ ? │
└──────┴──────┴─────┴───────┴─────────┴────────┘

Show all calculations!

Part 4: Field Survey

4. Observe THREE buildings in your area:
o Identify the roof type
o Estimate the pitch (steep, moderate, flat)

52
 o Note the roofing material used
o Sketch the roof shape
o Explain why that roof type was likely chosen
Example format:
BUILDING 1: Family House, Plot 23
Roof Type: Gable Roof
Pitch: Moderate (approximately 30°)
Material: Corrugated aluminum sheets
Reason: Good drainage for rainfall,
cost-effective, common design

53
WEEK 4: CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF
MATERIALS AND SYMBOLS
4.1 WHY USE SYMBOLS?
Technical drawing symbols are the universal language of engineering and architecture. They
provide:
1. Speed - Faster than writing descriptions
2. Clarity - Instantly recognizable
3. Space Efficiency - Compact representation
4. Standardization - Universal understanding
5. Professional Communication - Industry standard
Diagram 93: Symbol vs Description
WITHOUT SYMBOLS (Slow, cluttered)
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ "Water closet with cistern, │
│ wash hand basin with │
│ mixing tap, bathtub 1700mm │
│ long, ceiling light with │
│ one-way switch" │
└─────────────────────────────┘
Time: 2 minutes to write
Space: Large text block

WITH SYMBOLS (Fast, clear)

┌──────────┐
│ ╭─╮ │ ← WHB
│ ┌─┐ │ ← WC
│ └─┘ │
│ ┌──────┐ │ ← Bath
│ └──────┘ │
│ ⊗ │ ← Light
│ S │ ← Switch
└──────────┘
Time: 30 seconds to draw
Space: Compact, clear

EFFICIENCY: 4× faster!

4.2 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF MATERIALS (IN

SECTION)
When objects are shown in section, different hatching patterns indicate different materials.

54
Diagram 94: Material Section Symbols - Complete Guide
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
1. EARTH (SOIL/GROUND)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│▪ ─ ▪ ─ ▪ ─│ ← Alternating thick and thin

│─ ▪ ─ ▪ ─ ▪│ lines with dots/pebbles
│▪ ─ ▪ ─ ▪ ─│
│─ ▪ ─ ▪ ─ ▪│

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Random dots (pebbles/soil particles)
• Alternating line thickness
• Irregular spacing
• Natural appearance

USE: Natural ground, excavation, earth fill

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
2. CONCRETE (PLAIN/REINFORCED)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│▪ ▴ • ▪ ▴ │ ← Mix of triangles (aggregate)

│ • ▴ ▪ • ▴│ and dots (sand/cement)
│▴ ▪ • ▴ ▪ •│ in plain background
│ • ▴ ▪ • ▴│

ALTERNATIVE (Simplified):
│░░▪░▴░•░░░│ ← Light stippling with
│░▴░░•░▪░▴░│ occasional shapes
│░•░▪░░▴░•░│

REINFORCED CONCRETE:
│▪ ▴ • ▪ ▴ │
│ • ═════ │ ← Add steel bars
│▴ ▪ • ▴ ▪ •│ (thick lines)
│ • ══════ •│

USE: Foundations, slabs, columns, beams

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
3. WOOD (TIMBER)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

CROSS-GRAIN (Across grain):

│╱─═─╱─═──│ ← Flowing curved lines

55
│═─╱─═─╱──│ representing wood grain
│─╱─═─╱─═─│ (natural, organic)
│═─╱─═─╱──│

ALONG GRAIN (With grain):

│║ ║ ║ ║│ ← Parallel lines
│║ ║ ║ ║│ (longitudinal section)
│║ ║ ║ ║│

PLYWOOD:
│═ ═ ═ ═ ═ │ ← Multiple thin layers
│─ ─ ─ ─ ─ │ with alternating grain
│═ ═ ═ ═ ═ │

USE: Structural timber, doors, frames, trusses

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
4. STEEL/IRON (METALS)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│║║║║║║║║║║│ ← Evenly spaced thin

│║║║║║║║║║║│ double lines at 45°
│║║║║║║║║║║│ (uniform, mechanical)
│║║║║║║║║║║│

ALTERNATIVE (Single lines):

│╱│╱│╱│╱│╱│ ← Evenly spaced single
│╱│╱│╱│╱│╱│ lines at 45°
│╱│╱│╱│╱│╱│

CAST IRON:
│╱│ │╱│ │╱│ ← Heavier, irregular
│ │╱│ │╱│ │ spacing
│╱│ │╱│ │╱│

USE: Beams, columns, reinforcement, structural steel

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
5. GLASS
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

IN SECTION:
│╱ ╱ ╱ ╱ ╱ │ ← Very thin, widely
│╱ ╱ ╱ ╱ ╱ │ spaced lines at 45°
│╱ ╱ ╱ ╱ ╱ │ (transparent quality)

IN ELEVATION:
56
│ ╱╲ │ ← Single wavy line
│ ╱ ╲ │ or diagonal lines
│ ╱ ╲ │ indicating reflection

USE: Windows, doors, partitions

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
6. BRICKWORK/BLOCKWORK
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│╱ │ ╱ │ ╱ │ ← Evenly spaced thin

│ │╱ │╱ │╱ │ single lines at 45°,
│╱ │ ╱ │ ╱ │ often with breaks
│ │╱ │╱ │╱ │

ALTERNATIVE:
│╲ │╱ │╲ │╱│ ← Crossed diagonal
│ │╲│╱│ │╲ │ lines (less common)
│╲ │╱ │╲ │╱│

SPECIFIC BRICK PATTERN:

┌──┬──┬──┐ ← In elevation, show
├──┼──┼──┤ actual brick courses
└──┴──┴──┘

USE: Walls, hollow blocks, brick walls

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
7. HARDCORE (GRAVEL/STONE FILL)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│╱▲╲╱▲╲╱▲╲│ ← Interlocking triangles

│▲╲╱▲╲╱▲╲╱│ representing stones
│╲╱▲╲╱▲╲╱▲│ (irregular, chunky)
│╱▲╲╱▲╲╱▲╲│

ALTERNATIVE:
│○ ▫ ○ ▪ ○ │ ← Random circles and
│ ▪ ○ ▫ ○ ▪│ rectangles (stones)
│○ ▫ ○ ▪ ○ │

USE: Foundation fill, sub-base, drainage

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
8. SAND

57
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│· · · · · ·│ ← Fine dots
│ · · · · · │ (small stippling)
│· · · · · ·│ evenly distributed
│ · · · · · │

USE: Sand blinding, bedding, fill

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
9. INSULATION
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈│ ← Wavy lines or

│≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈│ zigzag pattern
│≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈│ (fibrous quality)

ALTERNATIVE:
│╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲╱│ ← Zigzag pattern
│╲╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲│
│╱╲╱╲╱╲╱╲╱│

USE: Thermal/acoustic insulation

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
10. WATER
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│ │ ← Usually blank/white
│ WATER │ with label
│ │

ALTERNATIVE:
│~~~ ~~ ~│ ← Wavy lines
│ ~~ ~~~~ │ (indicating liquid)
│~ ~~~ ~~│

USE: Water tanks, pools, drainage

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
11. PLASTER/RENDER
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│░░░░░░░░░░│ ← Light stippling or

│░░░░░░░░░░│ light gray tone

58
│░░░░░░░░░░│ (thin finish layer)

OR:
│──────────│ ← Thin solid black
│ │ line on surface edge
│──────────│

USE: Wall finish, ceiling finish

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
12. MEMBRANE (DPC/WATERPROOFING)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

│══════════│ ← Thick solid black

│ │ line or band
│══════════│

ALTERNATIVE:
│▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓│ ← Dense hatching
│▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓│ or solid black

USE: Damp proof course, waterproofing

Diagram 95: Material Symbols Practice Sheet

MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE

Match the material to its section symbol:

A. │╱│╱│╱│╱│╱│ 1. Concrete

B. │▪ ▴ • ▪ ▴ │ 2. Steel/Iron

C. │╱─═─╱─═──│ 3. Brickwork

D. │╱▲╲╱▲╲╱▲╲│ 4. Wood

E. │╱ ╱ ╱ ╱ ╱ │ 5. Hardcore

F. │▪ ─ ▪ ─ ▪ ─│ 6. Glass

G. │══════════│ 7. Earth

H. │· · · · · ·│ 8. Membrane

I. │≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈│ 9. Sand

59
J. │~~~ ~~ ~│ 10. Insulation

11. Water

Answers: A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4, E-5,

F-6, G-7, H-9, I-10, J-11

4.3 ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLS (FOR FLOOR PLANS)

Floor plans use standardized symbols to show fixtures, fittings, and services.

4.3.1 PLUMBING SYMBOLS

Diagram 96: Plumbing Fixtures - Complete Guide
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
1. WATER CLOSET (WC) / TOILET
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PLAN VIEW:
┌───┐
│╱─╲│ ← Cistern (tank)
├───┤ rectangular
│ ○ │ ← Bowl (circular/oval)
└───┘ with drain center

ALTERNATIVE:
┌───┐
│ │ ← Simplified
│(○)│ version
└───┘

DIMENSIONS (Typical):
• Width: 400-500mm
• Depth: 600-750mm
• Cistern height: 400mm

LABEL: "WC" or "W.C."

60
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
2. WASH HAND BASIN (WHB) / SINK
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PLAN VIEW:
╭───╮
│ ○ │ ← Basin (rounded)
╰───╯ with central drain

WALL-MOUNTED:
║ ╭───╮
║│ ○ │ ← Against wall
║ ╰───╯

PEDESTAL BASIN:
╭───╮
│ ○ │
│ │ │ ← Pedestal
└──┘──┘ support

CORNER BASIN:
╱╭───╮
╱ │ ○ │ ← Fits in corner
╰───╯╲

DIMENSIONS (Typical):
• Width: 400-600mm
• Depth: 400-500mm

LABEL: "WHB" or "Basin"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
3. KITCHEN SINK
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SINGLE BOWL:
┌─────┐
│ ○ │ ← Single bowl
└─────┘ with drain

DOUBLE BOWL:
┌───┬───┐
│ ○ │ ○ │ ← Two bowls
└───┴───┘

61
WITH DRAINER:
┌───┬───────┐
│ ○ │┼┼┼┼┼┼┼│ ← Draining board
└───┴───────┘ (grooves shown)

CORNER SINK:
╱┌───┐
╱ │ ○ │ ← Diagonal
╱ └───┘╲ placement

DIMENSIONS (Typical):
• Single: 500×500mm
• Double: 1000×500mm
• With drainer: 1200×600mm

LABEL: "Kitchen Sink" or "KS"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
4. BATH TUB
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

STANDARD:
┌──────────┐
│ │ ← Rectangular
│ │ (long axis)
└──────────┘

WITH HEAD REST:

┌──────────┐
│ ╱╲ │ ← Contoured end
│ │
└──────────┘

CORNER BATH:
╱┌─────┐
╱ │ │ ← Angled
╱ └─────┘╲ for corner

JACUZZI/SPA:
┌──────────┐
│ ○ ○ ○ │ ← Jets shown
│ │ as circles
│ ○ ○ ○ │
└──────────┘

DIMENSIONS (Typical):
• Standard: 1700×700mm

62
• Short: 1500×700mm
• Corner: 1400×1400mm

LABEL: "Bath" or "Tub"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
5. SHOWER
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SHOWER TRAY:
┌───┐
│ ╳ │ ← Drain cross
└───┘ in center

SHOWER CUBICLE:
┌───┐
├╳ │ ← Drain + door
└───┘ opening

CORNER SHOWER:
╱┐
╱ │ ← Quadrant
╱ ╳ with drain
└───┘

WALK-IN SHOWER:
┌─────────┐
│ ╳ │ ← Large area
│ │ no tray
└─────────┘

WET ROOM:
┌──────────────┐
│ ╳ │ ← Entire room
│ Floor │ is shower
│ Drain │
└──────────────┘

DIMENSIONS (Typical):
• Standard tray: 800×800mm
• Large: 1000×1000mm
• Walk-in: 1200×900mm

LABEL: "Shower" or "S"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
6. BIDET

63
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

┌─────┐
│ (○) │ ← Similar to WC
└─────┘ but smaller

DIMENSIONS: 400×600mm
LABEL: "Bidet"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
7. URINAL
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

WALL-MOUNTED:
║ ┌─┐
║ │○│ ← Individual
║ └─┘ urinal

TROUGH:
║ ┌─────┐
║ │○ ○ ○│ ← Multiple
║ └─────┘ positions

LABEL: "Urinal"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
8. WASHING MACHINE
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

┌─────┐
│ ⊙ │ ← Circle with
│ WM │ center dot
└─────┘ + label

DIMENSIONS: 600×600mm
LABEL: "WM" or "Washing Machine"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
9. DISHWASHER
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

┌─────┐
│ ▭ ▭ ▭ │ ← Racks shown
│ DW │ + label
└─────┘

64
DIMENSIONS: 600×600mm
LABEL: "DW" or "Dishwasher"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
10. WATER HEATER/GEYSER
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

WALL-MOUNTED:
║ ┌───┐
║ │≈≈≈│ ← Heating element
║ │ H │ shown
║ └───┘

LABEL: "WH" or "Geyser"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
11. FLOOR DRAIN/GULLY
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

╱╲
╱FD╲ ← Floor drain
╱ ╲ (grating)
╲____╱

ALTERNATIVE:
┌──┐
│╳╳│ ← Cross hatch
└──┘ pattern

LABEL: "FD" or "Gully"

4.3.2 ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

Diagram 97: Electrical Symbols - Complete Guide
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
1. CEILING LIGHT OUTLET
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

⊗ ← Circle with X
(Most common)

ALTERNATIVE:
⊕ ← Circle with +

65
PENDANT LIGHT:
⊗
│ ← Vertical line
shows hanging

RECESSED LIGHT:
◉ ← Double circle
(recessed/spotlight)

LABEL: Usually unlabeled,

or "L" for light

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
2. WALL LIGHT OUTLET
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║ ⊗ ← Circle with X
║ attached to wall

║⊗ ─ ← With arm/bracket

SCONCE:
║╱⊗ ← Angled bracket

LABEL: "WL" if needed

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
3. FLUORESCENT LIGHT
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

┌──⊗ ──┐ ← Tube outline

│ ⊗ │ with symbol
└─────┘

LINEAR:
┌────────┐
│⊗ ──⊗ ──⊗ │ ← Multiple tubes
└────────┘

LABEL: "FL" or "Fluor"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
4. SWITCH (ONE-WAY)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

66
 S ← Letter S
(Most common)

──S── ← S on line

○ ← Circle with
│ vertical line
S

LABEL: "S" or "S1"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
5. SWITCH (TWO-WAY)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

S₂ ← S with subscript 2

──S₂── ← S2 on line

○
╱│╲ ← Y-shaped
S₂

USE: Control one light

from two locations

LABEL: "S2" or "2-Way"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
6. DIMMER SWITCH
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

D ← Letter D

──D── ← D on line

⊙ ← Circle with
D rotating dial

LABEL: "DIM" or "D"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
7. SOCKET OUTLET (Power Plug)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

67
 ║ ⊐ ← D-shape on wall
║ (Most common)

║ ⊓ ← Facing opposite

║ ◐ ← Half-filled circle

DOUBLE SOCKET:
║ ⊐ ← Two symbols
║ ⊐ stacked

FLOOR SOCKET:
⊐ ← In floor
│
──┴──

DIMENSIONS:
• Height: 300mm (normal)
• Height: 1100mm (kitchen)

LABEL: Usually unlabeled,

or "SO" for Socket Outlet

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
8. CEILING FAN
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

⊕ ← Circle with +
╱│╲ and propeller
blades

ALTERNATIVE:
◎ ← Concentric circles
╱│╲ with blades

⊗
╱│╲ ← With X center

WITH LIGHT:
⊗ ← Combined
╱│╲ fan + light
⊗

LABEL: "CF" or "Fan"

68
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
9. DISTRIBUTION BOARD (DB)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║┌───┐
║│▓▓▓│ ← Hatched
║│DB │ rectangle
║└───┘ on wall

ALTERNATIVE:
║┌───┐
║│═══│ ← Striped
║│DB │ pattern
║└───┘

FUSE BOX:
║┌───┐
║│FB │ ← Simpler
║└───┘

DIMENSIONS: 400×600mm typical

LABEL: "DB" or "Distribution Board"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
10. PULL SWITCH (Bathroom)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

⊙ ← Circle
│ with cord
↓

──⊙── ← On ceiling
│
PS

USE: Bathroom lights

(cord operated)

LABEL: "PS"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
11. JUNCTION BOX
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

╳ ← X mark

69
 ──╋── ← Cross with lines

□ ← Small square
(less common)

LABEL: "JB" if needed

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
12. TELEPHONE OUTLET
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║ ⊓ ← Similar to socket
║ T but with T

║ □ ← Square with T
║ T

LABEL: "TEL" or "T"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
13. TV AERIAL OUTLET
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║ ⊓ ← D-shape with
║ TV TV label

║ ◁ ← Triangle
║TV (antenna shape)

LABEL: "TV" or "Aerial"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
14. DATA/NETWORK OUTLET
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║ ⊓ ← D-shape with
║ D D label

║ ⊓ ← Or with NET
║NET

LABEL: "DATA" or "NET"

70
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
15. SMOKE DETECTOR
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

⊙ ← Concentric circles
◎ (alarm shape)

⊗ ← Circle with X
SD and label

LABEL: "SD" or "Smoke Det"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
16. BELL/BUZZER
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║ ◐ ← Half circle
║ B (bell shape)

║ ⊓ ← D-shape with
║ B B label

LABEL: "Bell" or "Buzzer"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
17. SECURITY SENSOR
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║ ◁ ← Triangle
║PIR (sensor)

║ ● ← Solid dot
║ S with label

LABEL: "PIR" or "Sensor"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
WIRING CONNECTIONS
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

Switch to Light:
S ········> ⊗
(Dotted line shows control)

Multiple Lights on Circuit:

71
 S ·····> ⊗ ──⊗ ──⊗
(Solid line = power cable)

Two-way Switching:
S₂ ·····> ⊗ <····· S₂
(Light controlled from 2 places)

LEGEND:
──── Solid line = Power cable
···· Dotted line = Control wire

4.3.3 MECHANICAL/HVAC SYMBOLS

Diagram 98: Mechanical Symbols
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
1. AIR CONDITIONING UNIT (AC)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SPLIT UNIT (Indoor):

║┌──────┐
║│ ∿ ∿ ∿ │ ← Cooling coils
║│ AC │ shown
║└──────┘

WINDOW AC:
║┌──────┐║ ← Protrudes
║│ AC │║ through wall
║└──────┘║

CEILING CASSETTE:
┌──────┐
│▓ AC ▓│ ← On ceiling
└──────┘

DIMENSIONS: 800×300mm typical

LABEL: "AC" or "A/C Unit"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
2. EXTRACTOR FAN
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

WALL/CEILING:
║ ╱⊙╲ ← Fan blades
║ EF in circle

72
INLINE DUCT FAN:
═══⊙═══ ← In ductwork

LABEL: "EF" or "Extract Fan"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
3. DUCTWORK
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SUPPLY AIR:
═══════> ← Solid line with arrow

RETURN AIR:
<─ ─ ─ ─ ← Dashed line with arrow

FLEXIBLE DUCT:
≈≈≈≈≈≈> ← Wavy line

DIMENSIONS NOTED:
═300×200═> ← Duct size in mm

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
4. AIR DIFFUSER/GRILLE
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

CEILING DIFFUSER:
┌───┐
│╳╳╳│ ← Cross hatch
└───┘ (air outlet)

WALL GRILLE:
║ ┌───┐
║ │║║║│ ← Vertical lines
║ └───┘ (grille pattern)

LINEAR SLOT:
┌─────────┐
├─────────┤ ← Slot diffuser
└─────────┘

LABEL: "Diffuser" or "Grille"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
5. THERMOSTAT

73
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║ ⊙ ← Circle with
║ T T label

║ □ ← Small square
║ T on wall

LABEL: "TSTAT" or "Thermostat"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
6. BOILER/WATER HEATER
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║┌─────┐
║│ ≈≈≈ │ ← Heating element
║│ B │
║└─────┘

GAS BOILER:
║┌─────┐
║│ │ ← Flame symbol
║│ GB │
║└─────┘

LABEL: "Boiler" or "WH"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
7. RADIATOR
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║┌═══════┐
║│ ≡≡≡≡≡ │ ← Horizontal lines
║│ ≡≡≡≡≡ │ (heating fins)
║└═══════┘

DIMENSIONS:
• Length: 600-1800mm
• Height: 600mm typical

LABEL: "RAD" or "Radiator"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
8. FIRE EXTINGUISHER
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

74
 ║ ⊕ ← Circle with cross
║FE (safety symbol)

║ ┌┐ ← Cylinder shape
║ ││
║ └┘

LABEL: "FE" or "Fire Ext"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
9. FIRE HOSE REEL
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

║┌───┐
║│ ⊙ │ ← Coiled hose
║│FHR│ in cabinet
║└───┘

LABEL: "FHR" or "Hose Reel"

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
10. SPRINKLER HEAD
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

⊥ ← T-shape
○ (sprinkler)

⊙ ← Circle with
│ drop line

LABEL: "SPK" if needed

4.4 DIFFERENTIATION AND APPLICATION

Common Mistakes to Avoid:
Diagram 99: Symbol Confusion
COMMONLY CONFUSED SYMBOLS

✗ WRONG INTERPRETATION

Ceiling Light ⊗ Shower Drain ╳

75
"They both have X!"

✓ CORRECT IDENTIFICATION

Ceiling Light: ⊗ ← Circle with X

• On ceiling (center of room)
• Controls lighting
• Connected to switch

Shower Drain: ╳ ← X in square

• In shower tray (floor level)
• Drainage only
• No electrical connection

✗ WRONG INTERPRETATION

Socket Outlet ⊐ WHB (Basin) ╭─╮

"Both are on walls!"

✓ CORRECT IDENTIFICATION

Socket Outlet: ║⊐ ← Electrical

• Power supply (lower on wall)
• 300mm height
• Connected to DB

Wash Basin: ║╭─╮ ← Plumbing

• Water fixture (counter height)
• 800mm height
• Connected to pipes

✗ WRONG INTERPRETATION

Switch S South S

"Both use letter S!"

✓ CORRECT IDENTIFICATION

Switch: S ← Control device

• Small symbol (near door)
• Dotted line to light
• Electrical symbol

Compass: ⊕ ← With N, S, E, W

76
 N (on drawings)
W┼E Shows orientation
S Not a switch!

Diagram 100: Correct Symbol Application

BATHROOM FLOOR PLAN (Correct symbols)

SCALE 1:50

┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ │ 2500
│ ╭─╮ WHB │
│ │
│ ┌─┐ WC │
│ └─┘ │
│ │
│ ┌────────┐ Bath │
│ └────────┘ │
│ │
│ ⊗ Light │
│ │
│ S Switch │
│ ╱ │
│ ╱ Door │
│ │
└─────────────────────────────┘
2000

LEGEND:
⊗ = Ceiling Light
S = One-way Switch
╭─╮ = Wash Hand Basin (WHB)
┌─┐ = Water Closet (WC)
└─┘
┌───┐ = Bath Tub
└───┘
····> = Switch control wire

KITCHEN FLOOR PLAN (Correct symbols)

SCALE 1:50

┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ ┌───┬───┐ Double Sink │
│ │ ○ │ ○ │ │

77
 │ └───┴───┘ │
│ │
│ ┌─────┐ Stove │
│ │ ⊡ ⊡ │ │
│ └─────┘ │
│ │
│ ┌─────┐ Refrigerator │
│ │ R │ │
│ └─────┘ │
│ │
│ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ Ceiling Lights │
│ │
│ S₂ S₂ 2-way │
│ Switches │
│║⊐ ⊐ ⊐ ⊐ Socket Outlets │
│ │
└─────────────────────────────┘

LEGEND:
⊗ = Ceiling Light
S₂ = Two-way Switch
║⊐ = Socket Outlet
┌───┐ = Kitchen Sink
│ ○ │
└───┘

Diagram 101: Wiring Diagram Example

ELECTRICAL LAYOUT - BEDROOM

┌───────────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ ⊗ ⊗ │
│ ↑Ceiling Lights ↑ │
│ ····· ····· │
│ · · │
│ S₂·················S₂ │
│ ↑ Two-way switches ↑ │
│ (Control both lights) │
│ │
│ ║⊐ BED ║⊐ │
│ Socket Socket │
│ │
│ ║⊐ ║⊐ │
│ Bedside Bedside │
│ │
│ ╱ │
│ ╱ Door │

78
 │ ╱ │
│ │
│ ║⊐ TV point │
│ ║DATA Network │
│ │
└───────────────────────────────┘

KEY FEATURES:
• Two-way switching from both doors
• Sockets at bedside tables (charging)
• TV and data points on far wall
• Ceiling lights positioned centrally

WIRING LEGEND:
──── Power cable (live circuit)
···· Control wire (switch to light)

EVALUATION
1. Why do we use standard symbols in technical drawing instead of writing descriptions?

2. Draw the conventional sectional symbol for: a) Concrete b) Wood (cross-grain) c) Steel/Iron d) Brickwork e)
Hardcore

3. Draw the floor plan symbol for: a) Water Closet (WC) b) Wash Hand Basin c) Ceiling Light d) Socket Outlet e)
One-way Switch

4. Where on a drawing would you apply plumbing and electrical symbols?

5. What is the difference between a one-way switch (S) and a two-way switch (S₂ )?

6. How do you show the connection between a switch and the light it controls on a floor plan?

7. In a building section, how would you differentiate between concrete foundation, hardcore fill, and earth?

ASSIGNMENT
Part 1: Material Symbols Practice
1. On an A4 sheet, create a Material Symbols Reference Sheet:
o Divide the sheet into 10 boxes
o In each box, draw and label one material symbol:
 Concrete
 Wood
 Steel
 Brickwork

79
  Earth
 Hardcore
 Glass
 Sand
 Membrane (DPC)
 Insulation
o Make each symbol at least 50mm × 50mm
o Add a note explaining where each material is used
Part 2: Bathroom Floor Plan
2. Draw a Bathroom Floor Plan (2.5m × 2.0m) at scale 1:50:
o Include and correctly draw symbols for:
 Water Closet (WC)
 Wash Hand Basin (WHB)
 Bath Tub or Shower
 One ceiling light with one-way switch
 One socket outlet
 Door (900mm wide, show swing)
o Add dimensions for:
 Overall room size
 Fixture positions
o Include:
 Title: "BATHROOM FLOOR PLAN"
 Scale: 1:50
 North arrow
 Legend/key for all symbols used
 10mm border
 Title block
Part 3: Building Section Detail
3. Draw a simple wall section showing materials:
o Draw a vertical section through an external wall (scale 1:20)
o Show from foundation to roof level
o Include and correctly hatch:
 Foundation (concrete)
 Hardcore under floor (hardcore symbol)
 Floor slab (concrete)
 Wall (brickwork/blockwork)
 Roof structure (wood)
o Add labels for each material
o Dimensions not required, focus on correct symbols

80
Example format:
Roof (Wood) ╱─═─╱
╱ ╲
Wall │░╱░│╱░│ (Brick)
│░│╱░│░│
Floor │▪ ▴ •▪│ (Concrete)
├──────┤
Hardcore │╱▲╲╱▲╲│
│▲╲╱▲╲╱│
Foundation│▪ ▴ •▪│ (Concrete)
└──────┘
Earth │▪ ─ ▪ ─│

Part 4: Symbol Identification Quiz

4. Create a Symbol Quiz for a classmate:
o Draw 15 different symbols (mix of plumbing, electrical, mechanical)
o Number them 1-15
o Create an answer key on a separate page
o Exchange with a classmate and test each other

81
WEEK 5: MIDTERM TEST
MIDTERM TEST - SECOND TERM
Time Allowed: 2 Hours Total Marks: 100

SECTION A: THEORY (40 MARKS)

Answer ALL questions in this section.

Question 1 (8 marks)
a) Define the term "Computer" and list its four main operations. (4 marks)
b) Differentiate between hardware and software. Give two examples of each. (4 marks)

Question 2 (10 marks)

a) What does CAD stand for? (1 mark)
b) List FIVE advantages of Computer-Aided Design (CAD) over manual drawing. (5 marks)
c) Name TWO popular CAD software programs used for:
 Architectural design (1 mark)
 Mechanical engineering design (1 mark)
d) What is the specific name for a large-format printer used for printing technical drawings? (1
mark)
e) Explain the function of RAM (Random Access Memory) in a computer system. (1 mark)

Question 3 (8 marks)
a) Define the following arch-related terms:
 i) Keystone (1 mark)
 ii) Voussoir (1 mark)
 iii) Intrados (1 mark)
 iv) Springing Line (1 mark)
b) What is the primary structural function of an arch? (2 marks)
c) Name TWO types of arches commonly used in:

82
  i) Roman architecture (1 mark)
 ii) Gothic architecture (1 mark)

Question 4 (6 marks)
a) Define the term "Pitch" as it relates to roofs. (2 marks)
b) A building has a span of 10 metres and a rise of 3 metres. Calculate:
 i) The run of the roof (1 mark)
 ii) The pitch (express as a ratio) (2 marks)
c) What is the difference between a Gable Roof and a Hip Roof? (1 mark)

Question 5 (8 marks)
a) Why do we use conventional symbols in technical drawings? Give TWO reasons. (2 marks)
b) Describe the sectional representation (hatching pattern) for:
 i) Concrete (1 mark)
 ii) Wood (1 mark)
 iii) Steel (1 mark)
 iv) Brickwork (1 mark)
c) In a floor plan, what symbol is used to show the connection between a switch and the light it
controls? (1 mark)
d) Where on a drawing would you typically apply electrical and plumbing symbols? (1 mark)

SECTION B: DRAWING/PRACTICAL (60 MARKS)

Answer ALL questions in this section. Use proper drawing instruments and techniques.

Question 6: Hardware Components (10 marks)

Draw and label FIVE computer hardware components used in CAD work. Include:
 Monitor
 CPU (System Unit)
 Mouse
 Keyboard

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  Plotter
Each component should be clearly sketched and labeled. (2 marks each)

Question 7: Arch Drawing (15 marks)

a) Using a compass and ruler, construct a Semicircular (Roman) Arch with:
 Span = 100mm
 Show construction lines (center point, radius)
 (6 marks)
b) On your arch drawing, label the following:
 Keystone
 Voussoir (at least 3)
 Springer (both sides)
 Intrados
 Extrados
 Span dimension
 Rise dimension
 (7 marks)
c) Add a simple title block with: Title, Your Name, Date, Scale 1:1 (2 marks)

Question 8: Roof Truss Drawing (15 marks)

Draw a King Post Truss with the following specifications:
 Span = 8m (scale 1:100, so 80mm on paper)
 Rise = 2.5m (25mm on paper)
Your drawing must include and label:
 Ridge/Ridge Board
 Rafters (both sides)
 King Post
 Struts (both sides)
 Tie Beam
 Wall Plates (both ends)
Add dimensions for:
 Total span

84
  Rise height
Include forces notation:
 C = Compression
 T = Tension (Label which members are in compression and which are in tension)
Include a simple title block. (All components = 15 marks)

Question 9: Material Symbols (10 marks)

Draw a simple building section (sketch, not to scale) showing a wall from foundation to roof.
Include the correct sectional (hatching) symbols for:
 Foundation (Concrete) - 2 marks
 Hardcore fill (Gravel) - 2 marks
 Floor slab (Concrete) - 2 marks
 Wall (Brickwork or Blockwork) - 2 marks
 Roof structure (Wood/Timber) - 2 marks
Each material must be correctly hatched and labeled.
Example format:
ROOF (Label → Wood)
WALL (Label → Brick)
FLOOR (Label → Concrete)
HARDCORE (Label → Gravel)
FOUNDATION (Label → Concrete)

Question 10: Floor Plan Symbols (10 marks)

Draw the standard floor plan symbols for the following (each symbol should be approximately
30mm in size):
a) Water Closet (WC) - 2 marks b) Wash Hand Basin (WHB) - 2 marks c) Ceiling Light - 1 mark
d) One-way Switch (S) - 1 mark e) Socket Outlet - 2 marks f) Kitchen Sink (double bowl) - 2
marks
Each symbol must be clearly drawn and labeled.

MARKING SCHEME
SECTION A: THEORY (40 Marks)
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Question 1 (8 marks)
 Definition of computer (1 mark)
 Four operations: Input, Processing, Output, Storage (4 marks: 1 each)
 Hardware vs Software distinction (1 mark)
 Examples: 2 hardware, 2 software (2 marks)
Question 2 (10 marks)
 CAD = Computer-Aided Design (1 mark)
 Five advantages (5 marks: 1 each - speed, accuracy, editing, storage, sharing,
visualization, collaboration, etc.)
 Architectural software: Revit, ArchiCAD, AutoCAD Architecture (1 mark for 2 correct)
 Mechanical software: SolidWorks, Inventor, CATIA (1 mark for 2 correct)
 Plotter (1 mark)
 RAM function: temporary workspace/memory for active programs (1 mark)
Question 3 (8 marks)
 Keystone: topmost central voussoir that locks arch (1 mark)
 Voussoir: wedge-shaped block forming arch (1 mark)
 Intrados: inner concave curve/underside (1 mark)
 Springing line: horizontal line where arch begins to curve (1 mark)
 Arch function: converts vertical load to diagonal/horizontal thrust (2 marks)
 Roman: Semicircular arch (1 mark)
 Gothic: Pointed arch (1 mark)
Question 4 (6 marks)
 Pitch: steepness/slope of roof, ratio of rise to run (2 marks)
 Run = Span ÷ 2 = 10m ÷ 2 = 5m (1 mark)
 Pitch = Rise ÷ Run = 3 ÷ 5 = 3:5 or 0.6 (2 marks)
 Gable vs Hip: Gable has triangular ends; Hip has four slopes, no gable ends (1 mark)
Question 5 (8 marks)
 Reasons for symbols: Speed, clarity, standardization, universal understanding (2 marks
for any 2)
 Concrete: triangles and dots mixed (1 mark)
 Wood: flowing grain lines (1 mark)
 Steel: evenly spaced thin double lines at 45° (1 mark)
 Brickwork: evenly spaced single lines at 45° (1 mark)
 Connection symbol: dotted line (1 mark)
 Location: floor plans (1 mark)

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SECTION B: DRAWING/PRACTICAL (60 Marks)
Question 6 (10 marks)
 Each component clearly drawn: 1 mark × 5
 Each component correctly labeled: 1 mark × 5
 Total: 10 marks
Question 7 (15 marks)
 Construction: Accurate semicircle (3 marks)
 Construction lines shown (center, radius) (3 marks)
 All labels correct and clear (7 marks: 1 each for 7 items)
 Title block (2 marks)
 Total: 15 marks
Question 8 (15 marks)
 Correct proportions (scale) (3 marks)
 All members drawn correctly (6 marks: 1 per member type)
 All labels present and correct (4 marks)
 Dimensions shown (1 mark)
 Forces notation (C/T) (1 mark)
 Total: 15 marks
Question 9 (10 marks)
 Each material correctly hatched: 5 × 2 marks = 10 marks
 (Deduct 1 mark per material if hatching incorrect)
Question 10 (10 marks)
 Each symbol correctly drawn and labeled:
o WC: 2 marks
o WHB: 2 marks
o Ceiling Light: 1 mark
o Switch: 1 mark
o Socket: 2 marks
o Kitchen Sink: 2 marks
 Total: 10 marks

SAMPLE STUDENT ANSWER GUIDE

For Question 7 - Arch Drawing:

87
 SEMICIRCULAR ARCH
SCALE: 1:1

KEYSTONE ↓
╱─╲
╱ ╲ ← VOUSSOIR
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
╱INTRADOS╲ ← (Inner curve)
╱ ╲
╱ ╲
──────────────────── ← SPRINGING LINE
│ │
SPRINGER SPRINGER

←───── 100mm ─────→ SPAN

↑
50mm RISE

EXTRADOS (Outer curve) shown

┌──────────────────────────────────┐
│ TITLE: Roman Arch │
│ NAME: [Student Name] │
│ DATE: [Date] │
│ SCALE: 1:1 │
└──────────────────────────────────┘

For Question 8 - King Post Truss:

KING POST TRUSS
SCALE: 1:100

RIDGE ↓
╱│╲
╱ │ ╲ ← RAFTER (C)
╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲
╱ │King╲
╱ │Post ╲
╱ (C)│ ╲
╱ Strut│Strut ╲
╱ ╱(C)│(C)╲ ╲
╱═════╱════╧════╲═══╲ ← TIE BEAM (T)
├─────────────────────┤
WALL WALL
PLATE PLATE

88
←────── 80mm ──────→
(8m)
↑
25mm RISE
(2.5m)

KEY:
C = Compression
T = Tension

┌──────────────────────────────────┐
│ TITLE: King Post Truss │
│ SCALE: 1:100 │
│ DATE: [Date] │
└──────────────────────────────────┘

For Question 9 - Material Symbols:

BUILDING SECTION - MATERIALS

ROOF
╱─═─╱ ← WOOD
╱ ╲ (Flowing grain)

WALL
│░╱░│╱░│ ← BRICKWORK
│░│╱░│░│ (45° lines)

FLOOR SLAB
│▪ ▴ • ▪│ ← CONCRETE
│ • ▴ ▪ │ (Triangles + dots)

HARDCORE
│╱▲╲╱▲╲│ ← GRAVEL
│▲╲╱▲╲╱│ (Interlocking triangles)

FOUNDATION
│▪ ▴ • ▪│ ← CONCRETE
│ • ▴ ▪ │ (Triangles + dots)
└───────┘

Labels must be clear!

For Question 10 - Floor Plan Symbols:

89
FLOOR PLAN SYMBOLS

1. WATER CLOSET (WC)

┌───┐
│╱─╲│ ← Cistern
├───┤
│ ○ │ ← Bowl
└───┘

2. WASH HAND BASIN

╭───╮
│ ○ │ ← Basin
╰───╯

3. CEILING LIGHT
⊗ ← Circle with X

4. ONE-WAY SWITCH
S ← Letter S

5. SOCKET OUTLET
║ ⊐ ← D-shape on wall

6. KITCHEN SINK (Double)

┌───┬───┐
│ ○ │ ○ │ ← Two bowls
└───┴───┘

COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID

Diagram 102: Midterm Test - Common Errors
═══════════════════════════════════════════════

ERROR 1: ARCH CONSTRUCTION

✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
╱──╲ ╱─╲
╱ ╲ ╱ ╲
╱ ╲ ╱ ╲
╱ ╲ ╱ ╲
════════════ ═══════════

Flat sides Smooth curve

(Not circular!) (True semicircle)

90
ERROR 2: KING POST TRUSS
✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
╱│╲ ╱│╲
╱ │ ╲ ╱ │ ╲
╱ │ ╲ ╱ │ ╲
╱═══╧═══╲ ╱ Struts╲
╱ ╱ │ ╲ ╲
Missing struts! ╱══╱══╧══╲══╲

Complete structure

ERROR 3: MATERIAL SYMBOLS

✗ WRONG (Concrete) ✓ CORRECT
│░░░░░░░│ │▪ ▴ • ▪│
│░░░░░░░│ │ • ▴ ▪ │
│░░░░░░░│ │▪ ▴ • ▪│

Solid fill Triangles + dots

(Incorrect!) (Shows aggregate)

ERROR 4: FLOOR PLAN SYMBOLS

✗ WRONG (WC) ✓ CORRECT
┌───┐ ┌───┐
│ │ │╱─╲│
│ □ │ ├───┤
└───┘ │ ○ │
└───┘
Just rectangles! Cistern + bowl
(Proper symbol)

ERROR 5: DIMENSIONS
✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
50 ←─ 50 ─→
┌──┐ ┌───────┐
│ │ │ │
└──┘ │ │
└───────┘
↑
No arrows 30
(Incomplete!)
Proper dimension lines

ERROR 6: SCALE APPLICATION

✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
Scale 1:100 Scale 1:100

91
Drawing 8m span Drawing 8m span
as 8mm! as 80mm!

8m ÷ 100 = 0.08m 8m ÷ 100 = 0.08m

= 8mm ✗ = 80mm = 8cm ✓

Too small! Correct size!

ERROR 7: LABELING
✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
╱│╲ ╱│╲
╱ │ ╲ ╱ │ ╲ RAFTER
╱ K ╲ ╱ │ ╲
╱═══════╲ ╱ K ╲ KING POST
╱ I ╲
No labels! ╱═══P════╧═╲ TIE BEAM
(What is K?) │ │ │
WALL WALL
PLATE PLATE

All labeled clearly!

ERROR 8: TITLE BLOCK

✗ WRONG ✓ CORRECT
(Missing entirely!) ┌──────────────────┐
│ TITLE: Arch Dwg │
│ NAME: J. Ade │
│ DATE: 10/11/25 │
│ SCALE: 1:1 │
└──────────────────┘

Always include! Complete info!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

EXAMINATION TIPS
Time Management:
RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION

Section A (Theory): 45 minutes

• Read all questions: 5 min
• Answer Q1-Q5: 40 min

92
Section B (Drawing): 75 minutes
• Q6 (Hardware): 10 min
• Q7 (Arch): 20 min
• Q8 (Truss): 20 min
• Q9 (Materials): 15 min
• Q10 (Symbols): 10 min

TOTAL: 120 minutes (2 hours)

Drawing Tips:
1. Use 2H pencil for construction lines (light)
2. Use HB pencil for final lines (dark)
3. Draw faintly first, then darken
4. Use ruler for all straight lines
5. Use compass for all circles/arcs
6. Label everything clearly
7. Add title block to every drawing
8. Check your work before submission
Theory Tips:
1. Read questions carefully - answer what is asked
2. Define terms precisely - use technical language
3. Show all calculations - include units (m, mm, etc.)
4. Use bullet points for listing
5. Draw sketches if helpful for explanations
6. Write neatly - examiners must read your work!

REVISION CHECKLIST
Before the test, can you:
Computer Hardware & CAD:
Define computer and list its operations?
List computer hardware components?
Explain RAM vs Storage?
Name popular CAD software?
List 5 advantages of CAD over manual drawing?
Know what a plotter is?
Arches:

93
Define all arch terminology (keystone, voussoir, etc.)?
Explain how arches work structurally?
Draw different arch types?
Construct a semicircular arch?
Label all parts correctly?
Roofs:
Define pitch and calculate it?
Identify different roof types?
Draw and label a King Post Truss?
Know all roof members (rafter, ridge, etc.)?
Indicate forces (compression/tension)?
Material Symbols:
Draw hatching for concrete?
Draw hatching for wood?
Draw hatching for steel?
Draw hatching for brickwork?
Draw hatching for hardcore?
Draw hatching for earth?
Floor Plan Symbols:
Draw WC symbol?
Draw WHB symbol?
Draw ceiling light symbol?
Draw switch symbol?
Draw socket symbol?
Draw kitchen sink symbol?
Show switch-to-light connection?

94
PAST QUESTIONS PRACTICE
Students should practice these additional questions:
Additional Theory Questions:
1. Explain the difference between a HDD and an SSD. Which is better for CAD work and why?

2. A building has a span of 12m and a pitch of 1:3. Calculate the rise and the approximate rafter length.

3. Why is a Hip Roof considered better than a Gable Roof in high-wind areas?

4. List THREE parts that should be labeled on a King Post Truss.

5. In a building section, how would you differentiate between a foundation and hardcore fill using hatching
patterns?

Additional Drawing Questions:

1. Draw an exploded view showing: Bolt, Plain Washer, and Nut (with part balloons).

2. Draw a simple floor plan for a toilet (1.5m × 2m) showing: WC, WHB, one light, one switch, and door.
3. Sketch THREE different arch types in elevation (Semicircular, Pointed, Segmental).

4. Draw a Queen Post Truss and label all members.

5. Draw a wall section showing five different materials with correct hatching.

END OF MIDTERM TEST

95
WEEK 6: BLUEPRINT READING, REPRODUCTION SERVICES
AND MERCHANDISING
6.1 WHAT IS A "BLUEPRINT"?
The term "blueprint" has an interesting history and modern application.
Diagram 103: Blueprint Evolution
BLUEPRINT HISTORY

1840s - INVENTION
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ Sir John Herschel invented │
│ cyanotype process │
│ │
│ Original Drawing (on tracing paper) │
│ ↓ │
│ Exposed to UV light + chemicals │
│ ↓ │
│ Result: WHITE lines on BLUE paper │
│ │
│ ░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │
│ ░░░──────────────────░░░░ │
│ ░░░│ │░░░░ │
│ ░░░│ DRAWING │░░░░ │
│ ░░░│ │░░░░ │
│ ░░░──────────────────░░░░ │
│ ░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░ │
│ Blue Background │
│ White Lines │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

96
1950s-1980s - DYE-LINE PROCESS
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ Also called "Ammonia Process" │
│ or "Whiteprint" │
│ │
│ Original Drawing │
│ ↓ │
│ Light-sensitive paper │
│ ↓ │
│ Developed with ammonia gas │
│ ↓ │
│ Result: DARK lines on WHITE paper │
│ │
│ ────────────────────────── │
│ │ │ │
│ │ DRAWING │ │
│ │ │ │
│ ────────────────────────── │
│ White Background │
│ Dark Lines │
│ │
│ Problems: │
│ • Slow process │
│ • Ammonia smell (toxic!) │
│ • Paper yellows over time │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

1990s-PRESENT - DIGITAL PLOTTING

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ Computer-Aided Design (CAD) │
│ ↓ │
│ Digital file (DWG, PDF, etc.) │
│ ↓ │
│ Sent to plotter/printer │
│ ↓ │
│ Result: BLACK lines on WHITE paper │
│ │
│ ────────────────────────── │
│ │ │ │
│ │ CAD DRAWING │ │
│ │ │ │
│ ────────────────────────── │
│ White Paper │
│ Black/Color Lines │
│ │
│ Advantages: │
│ • Fast (minutes, not hours) │
│ • Clean process │
97
│ • High quality │
│ • Color possible │
│ • Multiple copies easy │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

TODAY'S MEANING
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ "Blueprint" now means: │
│ • Any working drawing/plan │
│ • Technical drawing │
│ • Architectural plans │
│ • Construction documents │
│ │
│ Even though modern prints are │
│ BLACK on WHITE, we still call │
│ them "blueprints"! │
│ │
│ Like calling all tissues "Kleenex" │
│ or all copiers "Xerox" │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

6.2 READING AND INTERPRETING DRAWINGS

Reading blueprints is a critical skill. Different professionals read drawings differently based on
their needs.
Diagram 104: Building Drawing Reading Strategy
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SET

SET CONSISTS OF:

┌────────────────────────────────────┐
│ 1. SITE PLAN (Context) │
│ 2. FLOOR PLANS (Layout) │
│ 3. ELEVATIONS (Exterior) │
│ 4. SECTIONS (Construction) │
│ 5. DETAILS (Specific areas) │
│ 6. SCHEDULES (Specifications) │
└────────────────────────────────────┘

98
READING SEQUENCE:

STEP 1: TITLE BLOCK

┌────────────────────────────────────┐
│ • Project name & address │
│ • Sheet title (e.g., "Floor Plan") │
│ • Sheet number (e.g., "A-02") │
│ • Scale (e.g., "1:100") │
│ • Date & revisions │
│ • Architect/Engineer name │
└────────────────────────────────────┘
Read this FIRST - gives context!

STEP 2: FLOOR PLAN

┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ A │
│ ║ │
│ BED ║ LIVING │
│ ROOM ║ ROOM │
│ ║ │
│ ║ │
│ A │
└─────────────────────────────┘

Questions to answer:
• What is the building layout?
• Where are the rooms?
• What are room dimensions?
• Where are doors/windows?
• Where is SECTION A-A cut?

STEP 3: ELEVATIONS
╱───────╲ ← Roof type?
╱ ╲
╱ ▲ ╲
├──────┼──────┤ ← How tall?
│ ┌───┴───┐ │
│ │WINDOW │ │ ← Window sizes?
│ └───────┘ │
│ ┌─┐ │
│ │D│ │ ← Door location?
│ └─┘ │
══════════════ ← Ground level?

Questions to answer:
• What does building look like?

99
• How high is it?
• What materials are used?
• Roof shape/pitch?

STEP 4: SECTION A-A

╱│╲
╱ │ ╲ ← Roof structure?
╱══╧══╲
├───────┤ ← Ceiling height?
│ │
│ ROOM │ ← Wall construction?
│ │
══════════ ← Floor level?
│░░░░░░░│ ← Foundation depth?
└───────┘

Questions to answer:
• How is it built?
• Foundation depth?
• Wall thickness/material?
• Floor-to-ceiling height?
• Roof structure type?

STEP 5: DETAILS
Zoom in on specific areas:

WALL DETAIL (1:20)

│ Plaster ─┤
│░Brick░░░░│
│ Plaster ─┤

WINDOW DETAIL (1:5)

┌─────┐
│Glass│
│Frame│
└─────┘

FOUNDATION DETAIL (1:20)

│ Wall │
│Concrete│
│DPC────│
│Hardcore│
└Ground─┘

STEP 6: CROSS-REFERENCE
Always relate views to each other:

100
Floor Plan width = Elevation width
Floor Plan length = Section length
Section height = Elevation height

All views must ALIGN!

Diagram 105: Engineering Drawing Reading Strategy

MECHANICAL/ENGINEERING DRAWING SET

SET CONSISTS OF:

┌────────────────────────────────────┐
│ 1. ASSEMBLY DRAWING (Overview) │
│ 2. DETAIL DRAWINGS (Each part) │
│ 3. PARTS LIST/BOM (Inventory) │
│ 4. SPECIFICATIONS (Materials/etc) │
└────────────────────────────────────┘

READING SEQUENCE:

STEP 1: ASSEMBLY DRAWING

②
↓
╱①╲
╱─╲→③ │④ ←⑤
╲─╱ │ │
│ │
↓ ↓

Questions:
• How many parts total?
• How do they fit together?
• What is assembly sequence?

STEP 2: PARTS LIST (BOM)

┌────┬────────────┬─────┬─────────┐
│ITEM│ PART NAME │ QTY │PART NO │
├────┼────────────┼─────┼─────────┤
│ ① │ Housing │ 1 │ HS-001 │
│ ② │ Cover │ 1 │ CV-002 │
│ ③ │ Shaft │ 1 │ SH-003 │
│ ④ │ Bearing │ 2 │ BR-004 │
│ ⑤ │ Bolt M10 │ 4 │ BT-005 │
└────┴────────────┴─────┴─────────┘

101
Questions:
• What materials needed?
• How many of each part?
• Part numbers for ordering?

STEP 3: DETAIL DRAWINGS

For each part, find its detail drawing:

PART ③: SHAFT
TOP VIEW FRONT VIEW
┌───┐ ┌──────┐
│ │ │ │
└───┘ └──────┘

Ø20 ←─100─→

Questions:
• What are exact dimensions?
• What material?
• What tolerances?
• What surface finish?
• Any special processes?

STEP 4: MANUFACTURING INFO

From detail drawing, extract:

Material: Mild Steel

Diameter: Ø20mm ±0.05mm
Length: 100mm ±0.2mm
Surface: Turned smooth
Tolerance: H7
Heat Treatment: None
Quantity: 1 per assembly

6.3 BLUEPRINT REPRODUCTION SERVICES

The business of copying and printing large-format technical drawings.

Diagram 106: Blueprint Reproduction Business

REPRODUCTION SERVICE WORKFLOW

CUSTOMER SERVICE OUTPUT

102
 ↓ PROVIDER ↓

┌─────────┐ ┌──────────┐ ┌─────────┐

│ Brings │ │ │ │ Printed │
│ Digital │ → │ PLOTTER │ → │ Drawing │
│ File │ │ │ │ │
│(USB/ │ │ Computer │ │ Paper │
│ Email) │ └──────────┘ │ Copy │
└─────────┘ └─────────┘
OR OR
┌─────────┐ ┌──────────┐ ┌─────────┐
│ Brings │ │ │ │Digital │
│ Paper │ → │ SCANNER │ → │ File │
│ Drawing │ │ │ │(PDF/DWG)│
└─────────┘ └──────────┘ └─────────┘

DETAILED PROCESS FLOW

1. RECEIVE ORDER
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Customer arrives with: │
│ • USB drive (DWG, PDF files) │
│ • Email (send files) │
│ • Paper drawings (to scan) │
│ • Cloud link (Dropbox, etc.) │
└──────────────────────────────┘
↓
2. CHECK FILE
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Open file on computer │
│ Verify: │
│ • File opens correctly │
│ • Drawing is complete │
│ • No corrupted elements │
│ • Correct orientation │
│ • Paper size (A0,A1,A2,etc.) │
└──────────────────────────────┘
↓
3. GIVE QUOTATION
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Calculate cost: │
│ │
│ Paper Size × Quantity × Rate │
│ │
│ Example: │
│ A1 size = ₦1,000 per copy │
│ 5 copies = ₦5,000 │
│ │
│ + Binding (if requested) │
│ + Folding (if requested) │
103
 └──────────────────────────────┘
↓
4. PREPARE FILE
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ • Set correct paper size │
│ • Set scale (1:100, etc.) │
│ • Choose color/monochrome │
│ • Set line weights │
│ • Preview print │
└──────────────────────────────┘
↓
5. PRINT
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ PLOTTER │
│ ═══════════════ │
│ ║ ║ │
│ ║ Printing ║ │
│ ║ ║ │
│ ═══════════════ │
│ ↓ │
│ Paper Roll │
└──────────────────────────────┘
↓
6. QUALITY CHECK
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Inspect print for: │
│ • Clarity (sharp lines) │
│ • Complete (nothing cut off) │
│ • Correct size │
│ • No smudges/defects │
│ • Proper colors (if color) │
└──────────────────────────────┘
↓
7. FINISHING
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Options: │
│ • Trim edges (neat borders) │
│ • Fold to A4 size │
│ • Roll and tube │
│ • Bind multiple sheets │
│ • Laminate (protection) │
└──────────────────────────────┘
↓
8. DELIVERY
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ • Hand to customer │
│ • Provide receipt │
│ • Store digital backup │
│ (for reprints) │
└──────────────────────────────┘

104
Diagram 107: Plotter Types
PLOTTER CATEGORIES

1. INKJET PLOTTER
┌─────────────────────────────────┐
│ ▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓▓ ← Paper roll │
│ ↓ │
│ ▼▼▼▼▼▼▼ ← Print heads │
│ (Spray ink droplets) │
│ ════════════════ │
│ Drawing prints │
│ │
│ CHARACTERISTICS: │
│ • High quality │
│ • Color capable │
│ • Detailed/photographic │
│ • Slower speed │
│ • Higher ink cost │
│ │
│ BRANDS: │
│ • HP DesignJet │
│ • Canon imagePROGRAF │
│ • Epson SureColor │
│ │
│ SIZES: │
│ • 24" (A1) │
│ • 36" (A0) │
│ • 44" (A0+) │
│ • 60" (Large format) │
└─────────────────────────────────┘

2. LASER/LED PLOTTER
┌─────────────────────────────────┐
│ Paper cassettes │
│ ↓ │
│ Laser/LED unit │
│ (Fuses toner to paper) │
│ ════════════════ │
│ Drawing prints │
│ │
│ CHARACTERISTICS: │
│ • Very fast │
│ • Monochrome (B&W) typically │
│ • Lower running cost │
│ • Sharp lines │
│ • Good for text/technical │

105
│ │
│ BRANDS: │
│ • Xerox │
│ • Ricoh │
│ • KIP │
│ │
│ SIZES: │
│ • A1, A0 typical │
│ • Up to 36" width │
└─────────────────────────────────┘

3. PEN PLOTTER (Legacy)

┌─────────────────────────────────┐
│ Mechanical arm │
│ ╱│╲ │
│ ╱ │ ╲ ← Physical pens │
│ Moves across paper │
│ ════════════════ │
│ Drawing traced │
│ │
│ CHARACTERISTICS: │
│ • Very slow │
│ • Precise lines │
│ • Multiple pen colors │
│ • Nostalgic/artistic │
│ • Mostly obsolete now │
│ │
│ HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: │
│ • First computer plotters │
│ • Used 1970s-1990s │
│ • Replaced by inkjet/laser │
└─────────────────────────────────┘

COMPARISON TABLE

┌──────────┬─────────┬────────┬──────────┐
│ TYPE │ SPEED │ COST │ QUALITY │
├──────────┼─────────┼────────┼──────────┤
│ Inkjet │ Medium │ High │Excellent │
│ Laser │ Fast │ Medium │ Good │
│ Pen │ Slow │ Low │ Good │
└──────────┴─────────┴────────┴──────────┘

6.4 MERCHANDISING
Additional products/services to increase revenue.
106
Diagram 108: Product Range
BLUEPRINT SERVICE CENTER
PRODUCT CATALOG

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ CORE SERVICES │
├─────────────────────────────────────┤
│ ✓ Plotting (A4 - A0+) │
│ ✓ Scanning (A4 - A0) │
│ ✓ PDF to CAD conversion │
│ ✓ Drawing digitization │
│ ✓ Color printing │
│ ✓ Binding & finishing │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ DRAWING SUPPLIES │
├─────────────────────────────────────┤
│ PAPER: │
│ • Drawing sheets (A4-A0) │
│ • Tracing paper rolls │
│ • Graph paper │
│ • Cartridge paper │
│ │
│ INSTRUMENTS: │
│ • Set squares (45°, 30°/60°) │
│ • T-squares (various sizes) │
│ • Compasses (spring bow, beam) │
│ • Dividers │
│ • Protractors │
│ • French curves │
│ • Drawing boards (A4, A3, A2) │
│ • Parallel rulers │
│ │
│ DRAWING TOOLS: │
│ • Technical pens (0.1mm-0.8mm) │
│ • Pencils (2H, H, HB, B, 2B) │
│ • Lead holders & leads │
│ • Erasers (plastic, kneaded) │
│ • Eraser shields │
│ • Sharpeners │
│ • Masking tape │
│ • Drawing clips │
│ │
│ SCALES: │
│ • Architects scale │
│ • Engineers scale │
│ • Metric scales (1:100, etc.) │
│ • Triangular scales │

107
│ │
│ TEMPLATES: │
│ • Circle templates │
│ • Ellipse templates │
│ • Architectural symbols │
│ • Furniture templates │
│ • Lettering guides │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ OFFICE SUPPLIES │
├─────────────────────────────────────┤
│ • Folders & binders │
│ • Drawing tubes (storage) │
│ • Plan filing systems │
│ • Staplers & punches │
│ • Calculators (scientific) │
│ • USB drives │
│ • External hard drives │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ ADDITIONAL SERVICES │
├─────────────────────────────────────┤
│ • Lamination (A4-A0) │
│ • Mounting on foam board │
│ • CAD training courses │
│ • Drawing digitization service │
│ • Cloud storage solutions │
│ • Delivery service │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

PRICING STRATEGY

PLOTTING RATES (Sample - Nigeria)

┌───────┬──────────────┬──────────────┐
│ SIZE │ BLACK & WHITE│ COLOR │
├───────┼──────────────┼──────────────┤
│ A4 │ ₦200 │ ₦400 │
│ A3 │ ₦400 │ ₦800 │
│ A2 │ ₦600 │ ₦1,200 │
│ A1 │ ₦1,000 │ ₦2,000 │
│ A0 │ ₦1,500 │ ₦3,000 │
└───────┴──────────────┴──────────────┘

VOLUME DISCOUNTS:
• 10+ copies: 10% discount
• 50+ copies: 15% discount

108
• 100+ copies: 20% discount

STUDENT DISCOUNTS:
• 10% off with valid student ID

6.5 SETTING UP A BLUEPRINT REPRODUCTION SERVICE CENTER

Starting this business requires careful planning.
Diagram 109: Business Setup Guide
BLUEPRINT BUSINESS STARTUP PLAN

═══════════════════════════════════════

PHASE 1: PLANNING (Months 1-2)

1. MARKET RESEARCH
┌─────────────────────────────────┐
│ Identify potential customers: │
│ • Architects │
│ • Engineers │
│ • Builders/Contractors │
│ • Real estate developers │
│ • Government agencies │
│ • Educational institutions │
│ │
│ Survey competition: │
│ • How many services in area? │
│ • Their pricing? │
│ • Their service quality? │
│ • Gaps you can fill? │
└─────────────────────────────────┘

2. BUSINESS PLAN
┌─────────────────────────────────┐
│ Executive Summary │
│ • Business name & concept │
│ • Mission statement │
│ • Goals (1yr, 3yr, 5yr) │
│ │
│ Financial Projections │
│ • Startup costs │
│ • Monthly operating costs │
│ • Revenue projections │
│ • Break-even analysis │
│ │
│ Marketing Strategy │

109
 │ • Target customers │
│ • Pricing strategy │
│ • Promotional plans │
└─────────────────────────────────┘

═══════════════════════════════════════

PHASE 2: FUNDING (Months 2-3)

STARTUP COST BREAKDOWN (Nigeria - 2025)

EQUIPMENT:
┌──────────────────────────┬───────────┐
│ Large Format Plotter │ ₦2,500,000│
│ (HP DesignJet T520 36") │ │
│ │ │
│ Computer (High-spec) │ ₦400,000│
│ - i7 processor │ │
│ - 16GB RAM │ │
│ - 512GB SSD │ │
│ - 27" monitor │ │
│ │ │
│ Scanner (A0 size) │ ₦1,000,000│
│ │ │
│ UPS/Inverter System │ ₦300,000│
│ (Power backup) │ │
│ │ │
│ Generator (5KVA) │ ₦250,000│
│ │ │
│ Furniture │ ₦200,000│
│ (Desk, chairs, shelves) │ │
│ │ │
│ Software Licenses │ ₦150,000│
│ (AutoCAD, PDF, etc.) │ │
├──────────────────────────┼───────────┤
│ EQUIPMENT TOTAL: │ ₦4,800,000│
└──────────────────────────┴───────────┘

INITIAL STOCK:
┌──────────────────────────┬───────────┐
│ Paper rolls (various) │ ₦200,000│
│ Ink cartridges │ ₦100,000│
│ Drawing supplies │ ₦150,000│
│ Office supplies │ ₦50,000│
├──────────────────────────┼───────────┤
│ STOCK TOTAL: │ ₦500,000│
└──────────────────────────┴───────────┘

OTHER COSTS:

110
┌──────────────────────────┬───────────┐
│ Shop rent (3 months) │ ₦300,000│
│ Renovation/Setup │ ₦200,000│
│ Business registration │ ₦50,000│
│ Marketing materials │ ₦100,000│
│ Contingency (10%) │ ₦595,000│
├──────────────────────────┼───────────┤
│ OTHER TOTAL: │ ₦1,245,000│
└──────────────────────────┴───────────┘

┌──────────────────────────┬───────────┐
│ GRAND TOTAL STARTUP: │ ₦6,545,000│
└──────────────────────────┴───────────┘

FUNDING SOURCES:
1. Personal Savings
2. Family Loans
3. Bank Loan (SME)
4. Microfinance Institution
5. Government Grants:
• SMEDAN (Small & Medium
Enterprises Development
Agency of Nigeria)
• BOI (Bank of Industry)
• State youth empowerment programs

═══════════════════════════════════════

PHASE 3: LOCATION (Month 3)

IDEAL LOCATION CRITERIA:

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ ✓ Near architects/engineers offices │
│ ✓ Near construction companies │
│ ✓ Near technical colleges │
│ ✓ High visibility (main road) │
│ ✓ Adequate parking │
│ ✓ Reliable electricity │
│ ✓ Good internet connection │
│ ✓ Security │
│ ✓ Accessible by vehicle │
│ (customers bring large drawings) │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

SHOP SIZE:
• Minimum: 20sqm (for equipment)
• Ideal: 30-40sqm (with stock room)

111
═══════════════════════════════════════

PHASE 4: SETUP (Months 4-5)

1. SHOP PREPARATION
• Paint & renovate
• Install air conditioning
• Setup workstations
• Install shelving
• Setup display area
• Install signage

2. EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION
• Plotter setup & calibration
• Computer network setup
• Scanner installation
• Software installation
• Test all equipment
• Train on equipment

3. STOCK PROCUREMENT
• Order paper rolls
• Order ink/toner
• Stock drawing supplies
• Organize inventory system

4. BUSINESS REGISTRATION
• Register business name
• Obtain necessary permits
• Open business bank account
• Get insurance

═══════════════════════════════════════

PHASE 5: LAUNCH (Month 6)

MARKETING ACTIVITIES:
1. Grand Opening Event
• Invite potential customers
• Offer opening discounts
• Demonstrate equipment
• Distribute flyers/cards

2. Online Presence
• Create social media accounts
(Facebook, Instagram, Twitter)
• Post sample work
• Share tips on CAD/drawing
• Engage with customers

112
3. Direct Marketing
• Visit architects' offices
• Visit engineering firms
• Visit construction sites
• Leave business cards
• Offer introductory discounts

4. Advertising
• Local newspaper ads
• Radio spots (if budget allows)
• Roadside banners
• Vehicle branding
• Online ads (Google, social media)

═══════════════════════════════════════

ONGOING OPERATIONS

MONTHLY EXPENSES (Estimate):

┌──────────────────────────┬───────────┐
│ Rent │ ₦100,000│
│ Electricity │ ₦50,000│
│ Staff salary (1 person) │ ₦50,000│
│ Internet │ ₦10,000│
│ Consumables (ink, paper) │ ₦150,000│
│ Maintenance │ ₦20,000│
│ Marketing │ ₦30,000│
│ Miscellaneous │ ₦20,000│
├──────────────────────────┼───────────┤
│ TOTAL MONTHLY: │ ₦430,000│
└──────────────────────────┴───────────┘

REVENUE TARGETS:
To break even, need:
₦430,000 ÷ ₦1,000 (avg A1 price)
= 430 prints per month
= 15 prints per day (30-day month)

Realistic with good location!

═══════════════════════════════════════

SUCCESS FACTORS

✓ QUALITY SERVICE
• Fast turnaround
• High-quality prints
• Friendly service

113
 • Technical expertise

✓ RELIABILITY
• Consistent quality
• Meet deadlines
• Backup equipment
• Power backup

✓ CUSTOMER SERVICE
• Professional attitude
• Technical advice
• Follow-up
• Customer feedback

✓ CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
• Upgrade equipment
• Learn new software
• Expand services
• Stay current with technology

EVALUATION
1. Why are working drawings traditionally called "blueprints" even though modern prints are black on white?

2. What is the modern device used to print large-format technical drawings?

3. Describe the workflow for a typical blueprint reproduction service from when a customer brings a file to
delivery.

4. What is the difference between reading an Assembly Drawing and a Detail Drawing in mechanical
engineering?

5. List five items that a blueprint reproduction service center might sell as merchandise (besides plotting
services).

6. What are three key pieces of equipment needed to set up a blueprint reproduction business?

7. Explain how a Quantity Surveyor uses building drawings differently from how a Contractor uses them.

8. What are two challenges of running a blueprint reproduction business in Nigeria?

ASSIGNMENT
Part 1: Service Center Visit
1. Visit a local blueprint service, cyber cafe, or business center in your area.

114
 2. Interview the owner/manager and gather the following information:

o Do they offer plotting/printing services?

o What size paper can they print? (A4, A3, A2, A1, A0?)
o What type of plotter/printer do they use? (Brand/Model?)
o How much do they charge per sheet for different sizes?
o What other services do they offer?
o What challenges do they face in the business?
o How many customers do they serve per day/week?
3. Write a report (1-2 pages) summarizing your findings.

Part 2: Business Plan Outline

4. Create a simple business plan outline for starting your own blueprint reproduction service. Include:

a) Business Name - Choose a creative name

b) Location - Where would you set up? Why?

c) Equipment Needed - List main items

d) Estimated Costs - Research and estimate:

o Equipment costs
o Rent (3 months)
o Initial stock
o Total startup capital needed
e) Target Customers - Who will you serve?

f) Services Offered - What will you provide?

g) Pricing Strategy - How much will you charge?

h) Marketing Plan - How will you attract customers?

Part 3: Drawing Reading Exercise

5. Obtain a simple building drawing (floor plan or section) - you can use one from your textbook or that your
teacher provides.

6. Study the drawing and answer:

o What is the title of the drawing?

o What is the scale?
o What are the overall dimensions?
o List 5 specific pieces of information you can extract from the drawing
o How would an electrician use this drawing?
o How would a plumber use this drawing?

115
 o How would a builder use this drawing?
Part 4: Create a Service Price List
7. Design a professional price list for a blueprint service including:
o Company name and logo (design your own)
o Services offered (plotting, scanning, binding, etc.)
o Prices for different paper sizes (A4 to A0)
o Black & white vs Color pricing
o Volume discounts
o Additional services pricing
o Contact information
o Opening hours
Make it visually appealing - you can draw it by hand or use a computer if available.

116
WEEK 7: MIDTERM BREAK
This week is for the midterm break. Students should use this time to:

MIDTERM BREAK ACTIVITIES

1. Review & Consolidation
 Review all work from Weeks 1-6
 Organize notes and drawings
 Complete any unfinished assignments
 Practice drawing symbols from memory
2. Practical Skills Practice
 Practice drawing material symbols (hatching)
 Practice drawing floor plan symbols
 Sketch different arch types
 Draw roof trusses with proper labels
3. Field Observation
 Visit construction sites (with permission)
 Observe buildings and identify:
o Arch types used
o Roof types and structures
o Building materials
 Take photographs for your portfolio
4. Portfolio Preparation
 Gather your best drawings from the term
 Organize them in a folder/portfolio
 Label each drawing clearly
 Create a table of contents
5. Reading & Research
 Read ahead: Blueprint Reading topics
 Watch CAD tutorial videos online
 Research local architectural firms
 Learn about building materials used in Nigeria
6. Equipment Maintenance
 Clean your drawing instruments
 Sharpen pencils

117
 Organize your drawing supplies
 Prepare materials for Week 8

118
WEEK 8: BLUEPRINT READING (CONTINUED) -
CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS
8.1 CONSTRUCTION/PRODUCTION APPLICATIONS
Different professionals use the same blueprint for different purposes. Understanding these uses is
critical for effective communication in construction.
Diagram 110: Who Uses Blueprints and How
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TEAM

CLIENT
│
│ Approval
↓
┌─────────┐
│ARCHITECT│ ← Creates drawings
└────┬────┘
│
┌─────────┼─────────┐
│ │ │
↓ ↓ ↓
┌────────┐ ┌──────┐ ┌────────┐
│QUANTITY│ │STRUCT│ │ M & E │
│SURVEYOR│ │ ENG. │ │ ENG. │
└────┬───┘ └──┬───┘ └───┬────┘
│ │ │
└────────┼──────────┘
│
Tender Documents
│
┌────────┴────────┐
↓ ↓
┌─────────┐ ┌──────────┐
│CONTRACTOR│ │ SUB- │
│(Builder) │ │CONTRACTORS│
└────┬────┘ └────┬─────┘
│ │
└────────┬───────┘
↓
┌────────────────┐
│ CONSTRUCTION │
│ ON SITE │
└────────────────┘
│ │
┌────┘ └────┐
↓ ↓
┌─────────┐ ┌──────────┐
│PLUMBER │ │ELECTRICIAN│

119
 └─────────┘ └──────────┘

Each professional reads the SAME

drawings but extracts DIFFERENT
information based on their role!

8.1.1 HOW THE ARCHITECT USES THE DRAWING

Diagram 111: Architect's Perspective
ARCHITECT'S USE OF DRAWINGS

PURPOSE: Design Communication & Coordination

┌─────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ DESIGN DEVELOPMENT │
├─────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ │
│ 1. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN │
│ ┌─────┐ │
│ │ ╱─╲ │ ← Rough sketches │
│ │╱ ╲│ Initial ideas │
│ └─────┘ │
│ ↓ │
│ 2. SCHEMATIC DESIGN │
│ ┌──────────┐ │
│ │ Floor │ ← Basic layouts │
│ │ Plan │ Proportions │
│ └──────────┘ │
│ ↓ │
│ 3. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT │
│ ┌──────────┐ │
│ │ Detailed │ ← Refined design │
│ │ Drawings │ All views │
│ └──────────┘ │
│ ↓ │
│ 4. CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS │
│ ┌──────────┐ │
│ │Complete │ ← Full specifications │
│ │Blueprint │ Ready to build │
│ └──────────┘ │
└─────────────────────────────────────────┘

WHAT ARCHITECT CHECKS:

✓ SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS
• Do rooms flow logically?
• Are spaces properly sized?

120
 • Good circulation/movement?

✓ PROPORTIONS & AESTHETICS

• Visual balance
• Harmonious design
• Pleasing appearance

✓ FUNCTIONALITY
• Does it meet client needs?
• Practical room layouts?
• Adequate natural light?

✓ BUILDING CODES
• Fire safety requirements
• Accessibility standards
• Minimum room sizes
• Ventilation requirements

✓ COORDINATION
• Do all drawings align?
• Plan matches elevations?
• Sections match plans?
• No conflicts between trades?

✓ CONSTRUCTABILITY
• Can this be built?
• Are details practical?
• Reasonable costs?
• Available materials?

DRAWING SET CREATED BY ARCHITECT:

┌────────────────────────────────────┐
│ ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS (A-Series) │
├────────────────────────────────────┤
│ A-01: Site Plan │
│ A-02: Ground Floor Plan │
│ A-03: First Floor Plan │
│ A-04: Roof Plan │
│ A-05: North Elevation │
│ A-06: South Elevation │
│ A-07: East Elevation │
│ A-08: West Elevation │
│ A-09: Section A-A │
│ A-10: Section B-B │
│ A-11: Details (Wall sections) │
│ A-12: Details (Windows/Doors) │
│ A-13: Door/Window Schedule │
│ A-14: Finish Schedule │
└────────────────────────────────────┘

121
8.1.2 HOW THE QUANTITY SURVEYOR (QS) USES THE DRAWING
Diagram 112: Quantity Surveyor's Perspective
QUANTITY SURVEYOR'S USE OF DRAWINGS

PURPOSE: Cost Estimation & Budgeting

PROCESS: "TAKING OFF" QUANTITIES

STEP 1: MEASURE WALLS

┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ FLOOR PLAN │
│ ┌──────15m──────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ 10m│ │10m │
│ │ │ │
│ └──────15m──────┘ │
└─────────────────────────────┘

CALCULATION:
Perimeter = (15m + 10m) × 2
= 50m total length

STEP 2: FIND WALL HEIGHT

┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ SECTION A-A │
│ ╱────────╲ │
│ ╱ ╲ │
│ ├────────────┤ ← 2.7m │
│ │ │ (ceiling) │
│ │ ROOM │ │
│ │ │ │
│ ══════════════ ← 0.0m │
│ │░Foundation░│ (floor) │
│ └────────────┘ ← -1.0m │
└─────────────────────────────┘

Wall height = 2.7m + 0.3m (to wall plate)

= 3.0m

STEP 3: CALCULATE WALL AREA

Area = Length × Height
= 50m × 3.0m
= 150m²

STEP 4: DEDUCT OPENINGS

122
From Floor Plan, count:
• Doors: 4 (each 2m × 1m = 2m²)
• Windows: 6 (each 1.5m × 1.2m = 1.8m²)

Deductions:
Doors: 4 × 2m² = 8m²
Windows: 6 × 1.8m² = 10.8m²
Total deduct = 18.8m²

Net wall area = 150m² - 18.8m²

= 131.2m²

STEP 5: CALCULATE BLOCKS NEEDED

Wall thickness: 225mm (9-inch block)
Block size: 450mm × 225mm × 225mm

Blocks per m²:

1m² ÷ (0.45m × 0.225m) = 9.88 blocks/m²
≈ 10 blocks per m²

Total blocks = 131.2m² × 10

= 1,312 blocks

Add 5% wastage:
1,312 × 1.05 = 1,378 blocks

STEP 6: CALCULATE OTHER QUANTITIES

FOUNDATION:
From Section:
Width = 600mm
Depth = 500mm
Length = 50m (perimeter)

Volume = 0.6m × 0.5m × 50m

= 15m³ concrete

HARDCORE:
From Section:
Area = Floor area = 15m × 10m = 150m²
Thickness = 150mm = 0.15m

Volume = 150m² × 0.15m

= 22.5m³

ROOFING:
From Roof Plan & Section:
Roof area calculation (including slopes)
≈ 200m² (for pitched roof)

123
Aluminum sheets needed:
Sheet size = 3m × 0.75m = 2.25m²
Sheets = 200m² ÷ 2.25m²
= 89 sheets
Add 10% overlap/waste = 98 sheets

BILL OF QUANTITIES (BOQ) EXTRACT:

┌─────┬──────────────────┬──────┬──────┬────────┐
│ITEM │ DESCRIPTION │ UNIT │ QTY │ RATE │
├─────┼──────────────────┼──────┼──────┼────────┤
│ 1.0 │ SUBSTRUCTURE │ │ │ │
│ 1.1 │ Excavation │ m³ │ 20 │ ₦5,000 │
│ 1.2 │ Hardcore fill │ m³ │ 22.5 │ ₦8,000 │
│ 1.3 │ Concrete 1:3:6 │ m³ │ 15 │₦45,000 │
│ 1.4 │ DPC membrane │ m² │ 50 │ ₦2,500 │
├─────┼──────────────────┼──────┼──────┼────────┤
│ 2.0 │ SUPERSTRUCTURE │ │ │ │
│ 2.1 │ 9" Hollow blocks │ No │1,378 │ ₦250 │
│ 2.2 │ Mortar for blocks│ m³ │ 3 │₦25,000 │
│ 2.3 │ Lintels concrete │ m │ 20 │ ₦8,000 │
├─────┼──────────────────┼──────┼──────┼────────┤
│ 3.0 │ ROOFING │ │ │ │
│ 3.1 │ Roof trusses │ No │ 15 │₦35,000 │
│ 3.2 │ Purlins 2×3" │ m │ 100 │ ₦1,200 │
│ 3.3 │ Aluminum sheets │ No │ 98 │ ₦4,500 │
├─────┼──────────────────┼──────┼──────┼────────┤
│ 4.0 │ FINISHES │ │ │ │
│ 4.1 │ Plastering │ m² │ 262 │ ₦2,500 │
│ 4.2 │ Floor tiles │ m² │ 150 │ ₦5,000 │
│ 4.3 │ Painting │ m² │ 262 │ ₦1,500 │
├─────┼──────────────────┼──────┼──────┼────────┤
│ 5.0 │ DOORS & WINDOWS │ │ │ │
│ 5.1 │ Hardwood doors │ No │ 4 │₦85,000 │
│ 5.2 │ Aluminum windows │ m² │ 10.8 │₦25,000 │
└─────┴──────────────────┴──────┴──────┴────────┘

QS DELIVERABLES:
• Bill of Quantities (BOQ)
• Cost estimate
• Budget breakdown
• Material schedules
• Tender documents

124
8.1.3 HOW THE CONTRACTOR/BUILDER USES THE DRAWING
Diagram 113: Contractor's Perspective
CONTRACTOR'S USE OF DRAWINGS

PURPOSE: Construction Execution

PHASE 1: SITE SET-OUT

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ From SITE PLAN & FLOOR PLAN │
│ │
│ 1. Locate property boundaries │
│ 2. Mark building corners │
│ 3. Set up profile boards │
│ 4. String lines for walls │
│ │
│ SITE SETUP: │
│ Benchmark │
│ • │
│ ╱│╲ │
│ String─┼─String │
│ │ │
│ Profile│Profile │
│ Board │Board │
│ ║ │ ║ │
│ ║ •────║ Corner peg │
│ ║ ║ │
│ │
│ Mark all corners accurately! │
│ Check diagonal measurements! │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

PHASE 2: EXCAVATION
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ From SECTION DRAWING │
│ │
│ ══════ Ground Level (0.00) │
│ │ │
│ │ ← 1.0m depth │
│ │ │
│ └──── Foundation Level (-1.00) │
│ ←600mm→ Width │
│ │
│ TRENCH DIMENSIONS: │
│ • Depth: 1.0m below ground │
│ • Width: 600mm │
│ • Follow wall centerlines │
│ │
│ CHECK: │

125
│ ✓ Depth with measuring rod │
│ ✓ Level with spirit level │
│ ✓ Width with tape measure │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘
PHASE 3: FOUNDATION LAYING
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ From SECTION & SPECIFICATIONS │
│ │
│ ┌─────────────────┐ │
│ │░░Concrete░░░░░░░│ ← 500mm deep │
│ │░░░1:3:6░░░░░░░░░│ 600mm wide │
│ └─────────────────┘ │
│ │
│ PROCESS: │
│ 1. Place hardcore (if needed) │
│ 2. Compact hardcore │
│ 3. Pour concrete mix 1:3:6 │
│ 4. Level and cure │
│ │
│ MATERIALS NEEDED: │
│ (From BOQ by QS) │
│ • Cement: X bags │
│ • Sand: Y m³ │
│ • Granite: Z m³ │
│ • Water: W liters │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

PHASE 4: BLOCKWORK/WALLING
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ From FLOOR PLAN │
│ │
│ Wall positions: │
│ ┌────────────────┐ │
│ │░External 225mm░│ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ┌──Internal──┐│ │
│ │ │150mm blocks││ │
│ │ └────────────┘│ │
│ └────────────────┘ │
│ │
│ LEAVE OPENINGS FOR: │
│ • Doors (dimensions from plan) │
│ • Windows (dimensions from plan) │
│ │
│ BUILD TO HEIGHT: │
│ From SECTION: 3.0m (to wall plate) │
│ │
│ CHECK: │
│ ✓ Plumb (vertical) with plumb bob │
│ ✓ Level with spirit level │

126
│ ✓ Square corners (3-4-5 rule) │
│ ✓ Wall thickness correct │
│ ✓ Door/window openings accurate │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘
PHASE 5: ROOFING
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ From SECTION, ROOF PLAN, DETAILS │
│ │
│ SECTION shows: │
│ ╱│╲ │
│ ╱ │ ╲ ← Truss type & size │
│ ╱══╧══╲ Roof pitch │
│ │
│ ROOF PLAN shows: │
│ • Truss spacing (e.g., 1.0m c/c) │
│ • Ridge position │
│ • Overhang distances │
│ • Total roof area │
│ │
│ CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE: │
│ 1. Fix wall plates │
│ 2. Lift trusses into position │
│ 3. Brace trusses │
│ 4. Fix purlins │
│ 5. Fix roofing sheets │
│ 6. Install fascia & soffit │
│ 7. Fix gutters │
│ │
│ MATERIALS: │
│ From BOQ: │
│ • Trusses: 15 No │
│ • Purlins: 100m │
│ • Roofing sheets: 98 No │
│ • Roofing nails: 5 kg │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

PHASE 6: SERVICES INSTALLATION

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ ELECTRICAL (From Floor Plan) │
│ ┌────────────────┐ │
│ │ ⊗ ⊗ │ ← Install lights │
│ │ │ at these │
│ │ S S │ ← Install │
│ │ │ switches │
│ │ ║⊐ ║⊐ │ ← Install │
│ │ │ sockets │
│ └────────────────┘ │
│ │
│ PLUMBING (From Floor Plan) │
│ ┌────────────────┐ │

127
│ │ ╭─╮ │ ← Run pipes to │
│ │ WHB │ basin │
│ │ ┌─┐ │ ← Run pipes to │
│ │ WC │ toilet │
│ │ └─┘ │ │
│ └────────────────┘ │
│ │
│ Coordinate with: │
│ • Electrician │
│ • Plumber │
│ • Other subcontractors │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

PHASE 7: FINISHING
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ From FINISH SCHEDULE │
│ │
│ WALLS: │
│ • Plaster both sides │
│ • Paint (color from schedule) │
│ │
│ FLOORS: │
│ • Screed │
│ • Tiles (type from schedule) │
│ │
│ CEILING: │
│ • Install joists │
│ • Fix ceiling boards/POP │
│ • Paint │
│ │
│ DOORS & WINDOWS: │
│ • Install as per schedule │
│ • Hardware as specified │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

CONTRACTOR'S DAILY TASKS:

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ Morning: │
│ • Check drawings │
│ • Brief workers │
│ • Check material stock │
│ • Measure/set out work │
│ │
│ During Day: │
│ • Supervise workers │
│ • Check quality │
│ • Verify dimensions │

128
│ • Solve problems │
│ • Coordinate trades │
│ │
│ Evening: │
│ • Check progress vs drawings │
│ • Plan next day's work │
│ • Order materials needed │
│ • Report to client/architect │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

8.1.4 HOW THE ELECTRICIAN USES THE DRAWING

Diagram 114: Electrician's Perspective
ELECTRICIAN'S USE OF DRAWINGS

PURPOSE: Electrical Installation

FROM FLOOR PLAN - EXTRACT ELECTRICAL INFO

┌──────────────────────────────────────┐
│ BEDROOM FLOOR PLAN │
│ │
│ ┌─────────────────────────────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ⊗ ⊗ │ │
│ │ ↑Lights ↑ │ │
│ │ ····· ····· │ │
│ │ · · │ │
│ │ S₂·············S₂ │ │
│ │ ↑2-way switches ↑ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ║⊐ BED ║⊐ │ │
│ │ Socket Socket │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ║⊐ ║⊐ │ │
│ │ Bedside Bedside │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ╱ │ │
│ │ ╱ Door │ │
│ │ ╱ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ║⊐ TV ║DATA │ │
│ │ │ │
│ └─────────────────────────────┘ │
└──────────────────────────────────────┘

129
ELECTRICIAN'S CHECKLIST:

1. COUNT ALL FIXTURES:

┌────────────────┬──────┐
│ ITEM │ QTY │
├────────────────┼──────┤
│ Ceiling Lights │ 2 │
│ Switches (2-way│ 2 │
│ Socket Outlets │ 4 │
│ TV Point │ 1 │
│ Data Point │ 1 │
└────────────────┴──────┘

2. PLAN CABLE ROUTES:

┌─DB─┐ ← Distribution Board
│ │ (main source)
└─┬──┘
│
├───→ Cable to bedroom
│
┌─┴──────────────────┐
│ BEDROOM CIRCUIT │
│ │
│ Main cable enters │
│ at switch point │
│ │ │
│ ┌────┴────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ S₂ S₂ │
│ │ │ │
│ ↓ ↓ │
│ ⊗ ⊗ │
│ Lights │
│ │
│ Separate cables: │
│ → Socket ring │
│ → TV/Data points │
└────────────────────┘

3. DETERMINE CABLE SIZES:

┌─────────────────┬──────────┐
│ CIRCUIT │ CABLE │
├─────────────────┼──────────┤
│ Lighting │ 1.5mm² │
130
│ Socket outlets │ 2.5mm² │
│ TV/Data │ Coaxial/ │
│ │ Cat6 │
└─────────────────┴──────────┘

4. INSTALLATION SEQUENCE:
a) Chase/conduit walls
b) Run cables from DB
c) Install switch boxes
d) Install socket boxes
e) Pull cables through
f) Connect at DB
g) Test circuits
h) Install fixtures
i) Final testing

WIRING DIAGRAM (Created by Electrician):

DB (Distribution Board)
┌────┐
│ 30A│ ← Main breaker
├────┤
│ 15A│ ← Lighting circuit
├────┤
│ 30A│ ← Socket circuit
├────┤
│ 15A│ ← Bedroom circuit
└─┬──┘
│
└──→ To bedroom
│
┌──────┴────────┐
│ │
↓ ↓
LIGHTS SOCKETS
⊗ ⊐
⊗ ⊐
⊐
⊐

TESTING CHECKLIST:
✓ Continuity test (all cables)
✓ Insulation resistance test
✓ Polarity check (Live/Neutral/Earth)
✓ RCD/MCB operation test
✓ Load test (all circuits)
✓ Final inspection

131
MATERIALS NEEDED (For this bedroom):
┌──────────────────┬──────┬────────┐
│ ITEM │ QTY │ UNIT │
├──────────────────┼──────┼────────┤
│ 1.5mm² cable │ 30m │ metre │
│ 2.5mm² cable │ 40m │ metre │
│ PVC conduit 20mm │ 50m │ metre │
│ Switch boxes │ 2 │ No │
│ Socket boxes │ 4 │ No │
│ 2-way switches │ 2 │ No │
│ Socket outlets │ 4 │ No │
│ Ceiling roses │ 2 │ No │
│ Light bulbs │ 2 │ No │
│ TV outlet │ 1 │ No │
│ Data outlet │ 1 │ No │
│ Cable ties │ 50 │ No │
│ Conduit clips │ 100 │ No │
└──────────────────┴──────┴────────┘

8.1.5 HOW THE PLUMBER USES THE DRAWING

Diagram 115: Plumber's Perspective
PLUMBER'S USE OF DRAWINGS

PURPOSE: Plumbing Installation

FROM FLOOR PLAN - EXTRACT PLUMBING INFO

┌──────────────────────────────────────┐
│ BATHROOM FLOOR PLAN │
│ │
│ ┌─────────────────────────────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ╭─╮ WHB │ │
│ │ (Wash Hand Basin) │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ┌─┐ WC │ │
│ │ └─┘ (Water Closet) │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ┌──────────┐ Bath │ │
│ │ └──────────┘ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ ⊗ Light │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ S Switch │ │
│ │ ╱ │ │

132
│ │ ╱ Door │ │
│ │ │ │
│ └─────────────────────────────┘ │
│ 2500 × 2000 │
└──────────────────────────────────────┘

PLUMBER'S CHECKLIST:

1. IDENTIFY ALL FIXTURES:

┌───────────────────┬─────┬────────────┐
│ FIXTURE │ QTY │ SIZE │
├───────────────────┼─────┼────────────┤
│ Water Closet (WC) │ 1 │ P-trap │
│ Wash Hand Basin │ 1 │ 400mm dia │
│ Bath Tub │ 1 │ 1700mm │
│ Floor Drain │ 1 │ 100mm │
└───────────────────┴─────┴────────────┘

2. WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM:

┌─Water Tank─┐ (On roof)
│ (1000L) │
└─────┬──────┘
│ ½" pipe
↓
┌─────────────┐
│ BATHROOM │
│ │
│ Cold water │
│ to: │
│ • WC (½") │
│ • WHB (½") │
│ • Bath (½")│
└─────────────┘

If hot water needed:

Water Tank → Heater → Fixtures

3. DRAINAGE SYSTEM:
All fixtures drain to:

WHB ─→ Ø40mm pipe ──┐

│
WC ──→ Ø100mm pipe ─┼→ To Soak-away
│ or Septic
Bath ─→ Ø50mm pipe ─┤
│
Floor ─→ Ø100mm pipe┘

133
4. PIPE SIZING:
┌──────────────┬──────────┬──────────┐
│ FIXTURE │ SUPPLY │ WASTE │
├──────────────┼──────────┼──────────┤
│ WC │ ½" (15mm│ 4" (100mm│
│ WHB │ ½" (15mm│ 1½" (40mm│
│ Bath │ ½" (15mm│ 2" (50mm)│
│ Floor drain │ --- │ 4" (100mm│
└──────────────┴──────────┴──────────┘

INSTALLATION SEQUENCE:

PHASE 1: SOIL & WASTE PIPES

└──────────────────────────┘
First install because:
• Largest pipes (100mm)
• Fixed positions
• Must slope correctly

┌────────────────────────┐
│ Floor Level │
│ ════════════ │
│ │ WC waste │
│ ↓ 100mm │
│ │ │
│ ════╧════ Below floor │
│ └─→ To soak-away │
│ (Minimum 1:40 │
│ slope gradient) │
└────────────────────────┘

PHASE 2: WATER SUPPLY PIPES

└──────────────────────────┘
Can be:
• Surface mounted
• Concealed in walls
• Under floor

Supply → WHB
↓
└→ WC
↓
└→ Bath

Include:
• Shut-off valves
• Air vents

134
• Access points

PHASE 3: FIXTURE INSTALLATION

└──────────────────────────┘

WC Installation:
1. Set in position
2. Connect soil pipe
3. Connect water supply
4. Seal base with silicone
5. Bolt down
6. Test flush

WHB Installation:
1. Fix brackets/pedestal
2. Set basin level
3. Connect waste pipe
4. Connect taps
5. Connect supply
6. Seal edges
7. Test for leaks

Bath Installation:
1. Set on bath feet/support
2. Check level
3. Connect waste/overflow
4. Connect supply to mixer
5. Test for leaks
6. Seal to wall

PHASE 4: TESTING
└──────────────────┘

Water Supply Test:

✓ Turn on water
✓ Check all joints
✓ Look for leaks
✓ Check flow rates
✓ Test all taps

Drainage Test:
✓ Run water in each fixture
✓ Check waste flows freely

135
✓ No leaks at joints
✓ Proper drainage speed
✓ No gurgling sounds

MATERIALS NEEDED:
┌────────────────────┬─────┬────────┐
│ ITEM │ QTY │ UNIT │
├────────────────────┼─────┼────────┤
│ WC suite (complete)│ 1 │ set │
│ WHB with pedestal │ 1 │ set │
│ Bath tub (acrylic) │ 1 │ No │
│ Taps (basin) │ 1 │ pair │
│ Taps (bath) │ 1 │ set │
│ ½" UPVC pipe │ 15m │ metre │
│ 40mm PVC pipe │ 3m │ metre │
│ 50mm PVC pipe │ 4m │ metre │
│ 100mm PVC pipe │ 5m │ metre │
│ P-trap (WC) │ 1 │ No │
│ Trap (WHB) │ 1 │ No │
│ Floor drain │ 1 │ No │
│ Stop valves │ 3 │ No │
│ Pipe fittings │ As │ needed │
│ Silicone sealant │ 2 │ tubes │
│ PTFE tape │ 3 │ rolls │
│ Pipe clips │ 30 │ No │
└────────────────────┴─────┴────────┘

COMMON PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS:

┌──────────────────────────────────────┐
│ PROBLEM │ CAUSE │SOLUTION│
├──────────────────┼──────────┼────────┤
│ Low water │ Pipe too │Use │
│ pressure │ small/ │larger │
│ │ blocked │pipe │
├──────────────────┼──────────┼────────┤
│ Slow drainage │ Wrong │Check │
│ │ slope │gradient│
├──────────────────┼──────────┼────────┤
│ Gurgling sounds │ No vent │Install │
│ │ │air vent│
├──────────────────┼──────────┼────────┤
│ Leaking joints │ Poor │Re-seal │
│ │ sealing │properly│
└──────────────────┴──────────┴────────┘

136
8.2 MANAGING BLUEPRINT SERVICES (THE BUSINESS)
Running a successful blueprint reproduction service requires good management.
Diagram 116: Business Management
BLUEPRINT SERVICE BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

DAILY OPERATIONS
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ OPENING (8:00 AM) │
│ ✓ Turn on equipment │
│ ✓ Boot up computer │
│ ✓ Check plotter status │
│ ✓ Review day's orders │
│ ✓ Check paper/ink levels │
│ │
│ MORNING SHIFT (8:00 AM - 1:00 PM) │
│ • Receive customer orders │
│ • Process urgent jobs first │
│ • Quality check all prints │
│ • Maintain clean workspace │
│ │
│ AFTERNOON SHIFT (2:00 PM - 6:00 PM)│
│ • Continue processing orders │
│ • Deliver completed jobs │
│ • Restock materials │
│ • Clean and maintain equipment │
│ │
│ CLOSING (6:00 PM) │
│ ✓ Complete pending jobs │
│ ✓ Shut down equipment properly │
│ ✓ Secure shop │
│ ✓ Record day's transactions │
│ ✓ Plan next day │
│ │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

CUSTOMER SERVICE EXCELLENCE

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ GREETING │
│ "Good morning! Welcome to │
│ [Business Name]. How may I │
│ help you today?" │
│ │
│ RECEIVING ORDER │
│ 1. "What size do you need?" │
│ 2. "How many copies?" │

137
│ 3. "Color or black and white?" │
│ 4. "When do you need it?" │
│ 5. Check file compatibility │
│ 6. Give clear quotation │
│ 7. Get customer contact │
│ │
│ QUALITY ASSURANCE │
│ • Preview before printing │
│ • Show sample to customer │
│ • Reprint if unsatisfactory │
│ • Deliver on time │
│ │
│ FOLLOW-UP │
│ • Call when ready │
│ • Thank customer │
│ • Ask for feedback │
│ • Offer future discounts │
│ │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

RECORD KEEPING
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ DAILY SALES RECORD │
│ │
│ Date: 10/11/2025 │
│ │
│ ┌────┬───────┬─────┬─────┬────────┐ │
│ │ No │Customer│Size│ Qty │ Amount │ │
│ ├────┼───────┼─────┼─────┼────────┤ │
│ │001 │[Link]│ A1 │ 5 │ ₦5,000 │ │
│ │002 │[Link]│ A2 │ 10 │ ₦6,000 │ │
│ │003 │Builder│ A3 │ 3 │ ₦1,200 │ │
│ └────┴───────┴─────┴─────┴────────┘ │
│ │
│ Total Sales: ₦12,200 │
│ Cost of materials: ₦3,500 │
│ Profit: ₦8,700 │
│ │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

CHALLENGES & SOLUTIONS

┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ CHALLENGE: Power Failure │
│ ┌─────────────────────────────────┐ │
│ │ PROBLEM: │ │
│ │ • Plotter stops mid-print │ │
│ │ • Computer shuts down │ │

138
│ │ • Lose unsaved work │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ SOLUTIONS: │ │
│ │ ✓ UPS/Inverter (2-3 hours) │ │
│ │ ✓ Generator backup │ │
│ │ ✓ Auto-save enabled │ │
│ │ ✓ Print queue manager │ │
│ │ ✓ Inform customer of delay │ │
│ └─────────────────────────────────┘ │
│ │
│ CHALLENGE: File Incompatibility │
│ ┌─────────────────────────────────┐ │
│ │ PROBLEM: │ │
│ │ • Corrupt files │ │
│ │ • Wrong file format │ │
│ │ • Missing fonts │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ SOLUTIONS: │ │
│ │ ✓ Multiple software installed │ │
│ │ (AutoCAD, Revit, PDF, etc.) │ │
│ │ ✓ Font library │ │
│ │ ✓ File conversion tools │ │
│ │ ✓ Work with customer to fix │ │
│ └─────────────────────────────────┘ │
│ │
│ CHALLENGE: Equipment Breakdown │
│ ┌─────────────────────────────────┐ │
│ │ PROBLEM: │ │
│ │ • Plotter malfunction │ │
│ │ • Print head clog │ │
│ │ • Paper jam │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ SOLUTIONS: │ │
│ │ ✓ Regular maintenance │ │
│ │ ✓ Keep spare parts │ │
│ │ ✓ Technician on call │ │
│ │ ✓ Service contract │ │
│ │ ✓ Backup plotter (if possible) │ │
│ └─────────────────────────────────┘ │
│ │
│ CHALLENGE: Competition │
│ ┌─────────────────────────────────┐ │
│ │ SOLUTIONS: │ │
│ │ ✓ Better quality │ │
│ │ ✓ Faster service │ │
│ │ ✓ Lower prices │ │
│ │ ✓ Better customer service │ │
│ │ ✓ Additional services │ │
│ │ ✓ Loyalty programs │ │

139
│ └─────────────────────────────────┘ │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

EVALUATION
1. Which professional uses building drawings to calculate the number of blocks needed? What is this calculation
process called?

2. Which drawing view (Plan, Elevation, or Section) does the contractor primarily use to know the foundation
depth?
3. Explain how an electrician and a plumber use the same floor plan differently. What specific information does
each extract?

4. What are three major challenges of running a blueprint reproduction business in Nigeria? Suggest one solution
for each.

5. Describe the site set-out process that a contractor performs using the floor plan.

6. If a room on a floor plan shows dimensions "4000 × 3000", and the section shows "floor to ceiling height
2700", what are the complete dimensions needed for: a) Plastering the walls? b) Tiling the floor? c) Installing
the ceiling?

7. Why is power supply such a critical issue for blueprint reproduction services?

ASSIGNMENT
Part 1: Professional Role Analysis
1. Choose ONE professional role:

o Architect
o Quantity Surveyor
o Contractor/Builder
o Electrician
o Plumber
2. Create a detailed guide (2-3 pages) explaining:

o How they use building drawings

o What specific information they extract
o What tools/equipment they need
o Step-by-step work process
o Common problems they face
o Include diagrams/sketches
Part 2: Quantity Take-Off Exercise
140
 3. You are given a simple rectangular building:
o Length: 12m
o Width: 8m
o Wall height: 3.0m
o Wall thickness: 225mm (9-inch blocks)
o Doors: 3 (each 2m × 1m)
o Windows: 4 (each 1.5m × 1.2m)
Calculate: a) Perimeter of walls (in metres) b) Total wall area (in m²) c) Area of openings (doors
+ windows) d) Net wall area (wall area minus openings) e) Number of 9-inch blocks needed (10
blocks per m²) f) Add 5% for wastage
Show all calculations clearly!
Part 3: Service Business Plan
4. You want to start a blueprint reproduction service. Create a simple one-page business
plan including:
o Business name
o Location (where and why)
o Target customers
o Equipment needed
o Estimated startup costs
o Services offered
o Pricing strategy
o How you will handle power challenges
o Marketing plan
Part 4: Drawing Reading Exercise
5. Obtain a building drawing (floor plan with section).
Study it and answer as different professionals:
As Contractor:
 Where will you dig foundations?
 How deep?
 What dimensions for walls?
As Electrician:
 How many lights needed?
 How many switches?
 How many socket outlets?
 Where is the distribution board?
As Plumber:
141
  What plumbing fixtures are shown?
 Where will supply pipes run?
 Where will waste pipes go?
Present your findings in a table format.

142
WEEK 9: COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD)
9.1 BASIC SKILLS IN USING CAD SOFTWARE (THE INTERFACE)
Moving from theory to practical application of CAD software.
Diagram 117: CAD Software Interface (AutoCAD Example)
╔════════════════════════════════════════════════════════╗
║ FILE EDIT VIEW INSERT FORMAT TOOLS DRAW MODIFY ║
╠════════════════════════════════════════════════════════╣
║ ║
║ RIBBON/TOOLBAR ║
║ ┌──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┐ ║
║ │├─│○ │╱ │□ │⌒│✎│↺ │⊗ │⊕│Δ│═│╪│⊞ │⊟ │⊠ │ ║
║ └──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┘ ║
║ Line Circle Arc Rectangle etc... ║
║ ║
╠════════════════════════════════════════════════════════╣
║ ║
║ DRAWING AREA (CANVAS) ║
║ ┌──────────────────────────────────────────────┐ ║
║ │ │ ║
║ │ • (Crosshairs) │ ║
║ │ │ ║
║ │ Your drawing appears here │ ║
║ │ │ ║
║ │ Usually BLACK or WHITE background │ ║
║ │ │ ║
║ │ │ ║
║ │ 0,0 │ ║
║ │ (Origin) │ ║
║ └──────────────────────────────────────────────┘ ║
║ ║
╠════════════════════════════════════════════════════════╣
║ COMMAND LINE (Bottom) ║
║ Command: LINE ║
║ Specify first point: _ ║
║ ║
║ [Status Bar] SNAP│GRID│ORTHO│POLAR│OSNAP│LWT│MODEL ║
╚════════════════════════════════════════════════════════╝
SIDE PANELS (Optional):
┌────────────┐
│ PROPERTIES │
│ │
│ Layer: 0 │
│ Color: Red │
│ Linetype: │
│ Continuous │
└────────────┘

143
┌────────────┐
│ LAYERS │
│ │
│ ☑ 0 │
│ ☑ Walls │
│ ☐ Dims │
│ ☑ Text │
└────────────┘

Key Interface Components:

Diagram 118: Interface Elements Explained
1. MENU BAR
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ FILE EDIT VIEW INSERT ... │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘
• Traditional drop-down menus
• Access all commands
• File operations (New, Open, Save)

2. RIBBON/TOOLBAR
┌──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┐
│├─│○ │╱ │□ │⌒│✎│↺ │⊗ │⊕│
└──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┘
• Quick access to drawing tools
• Icons for common commands
• Organized by function (Draw, Modify)

3. DRAWING AREA/CANVAS
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ Where you draw │
│ │
│ Infinite virtual space │
│ │
│ 0,0 ← Origin │
└─────────────────────────────┘
• Main workspace
• Coordinate system based
• Pan and zoom freely

4. COMMAND LINE
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Command: _LINE │
│ Specify first point: _ │
└─────────────────────────────┘

144
• Shows active command
• Displays prompts
• Enter commands via keyboard
• Shows coordinates

5. STATUS BAR
┌──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┬──┐
│SNAP│GRID│ORTHO│POLAR│OSNAP│LWT│MODEL│
└──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┴──┘
• Toggle drawing aids
• Show/hide features
• Quick settings access

6. COORDINATE DISPLAY
┌─────────────────┐
│ X: 125.50 │
│ Y: 89.30 │
│ Z: 0.00 │
└─────────────────┘
• Shows cursor position
• Real-time coordinates
• Useful for precision

7. LAYERS PANEL
┌────────────────┐
│ LAYERS │
├────────────────┤
│ ☑ 0 (Active) │
│ ☑ Walls │
│ ☐ Hidden │
│ Locked │
└────────────────┘
• Organize drawing elements
• Control visibility
• Lock/unlock layers

8. PROPERTIES PANEL
┌────────────────┐
│ PROPERTIES │
├────────────────┤
│ Layer: Walls │
│ Color: ByLayer │
│ Linetype: ──── │
│ Lineweight: 0.3│
└────────────────┘
• Object properties
• Modify attributes
• Current settings

145
9.2 FUNDAMENTAL CAD COMMANDS
CAD commands fall into three categories: Drawing, Modifying, and Management.

9.2.1 DRAWING COMMANDS

Diagram 119: Basic Drawing Commands
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

1. LINE COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: LINE (or L)

Method:
1. Specify first point: Click or type coordinates
2. Specify next point: Click or type
3. Continue or press Enter to finish

Example:
Point 1 (0,0) ────→ Point 2 (100,0)
100 units long

Shortcut: L [Enter]
Icon: ├─

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

2. CIRCLE COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: CIRCLE (or C)

Options:
a) Center, Radius
┌─────────┐
│ • │ ← Center point
│ R=50 │ ← Radius
└─────────┘

b) Center, Diameter
┌─────────┐
│ • │ ← Center point
│ Ø=100 │ ← Diameter
└─────────┘

c) 2-Point (diameter)
Point 1 ●─────────● Point 2

146
 (Diameter)

d) 3-Point (on circumference)

●
\
\ ○
● ← Circle through 3 points
\
●

Shortcut: C [Enter]
Icon: ○

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

3. ARC COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: ARC (or A)

Common method: 3-Point

Point 1 (Start) ●
\
\ Arc
Point 2 (Middle) ●
\
\
Point 3 (End) ●

Other options:
• Start, Center, End
• Start, Center, Angle
• Start, End, Radius

Shortcut: A [Enter]
Icon: ⌒

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

4. RECTANGLE COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: RECTANGLE (or REC)

Method:
Point 1 (Corner 1) ●
│\

147
 │ \
│ \
Point 2 (Corner 2) │ ● (Opposite corner)
└────┘

Can specify:
• Dimensions (Length, Width)
• Area
• Chamfer/Fillet corners

Shortcut: REC [Enter]

Icon: □

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

5. POLYGON COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: POLYGON (or POL)

Options:
• Number of sides (3-1024)
• Inscribed in circle
• Circumscribed about circle

Hexagon (6 sides):
╱──╲
╱ ╲
│ │
╲ ╱
╲──╱

Shortcut: POL [Enter]

Icon: ⬡

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

6. ELLIPSE COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: ELLIPSE (or EL)

Method: Axis endpoints

Point 1 ●──────────● Point 2

(Major axis)
│
○ ← Half minor axis

148
 │

Result: ╱────╲
│ │
╲────╱

Shortcut: EL [Enter]
Icon: ⬭

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

7. POLYLINE COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: PLINE (or PL)

Like LINE but:

• Connected segments
• Single object
• Can have width
• Can include arcs

●─────●
│
│─────●
│
●

All one object!

Shortcut: PL [Enter]
Icon: ├─══

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

8. SPLINE COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: SPLINE (or SPL)

Smooth curve through points:

●
\
\ ～～～
● ～～
● ～～
●

149
 Used for: Organic shapes,
Contours, etc.

Shortcut: SPL [Enter]

Icon: ～

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

9. HATCH COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: HATCH (or H)

Fill area with pattern:

┌─────────┐
│░░░░░░░░░│ ← Solid
└─────────┘

┌─────────┐
│╱╱╱╱╱╱╱╱╱│ ← Lines (ANSI31)
└─────────┘

┌─────────┐
│▪ ▴ • ▪ ▴│ ← Custom pattern
└─────────┘

Used for: Material indication,

Emphasis, sections

Shortcut: H [Enter]
Icon: ▓

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
10. TEXT COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: TEXT or MTEXT
TEXT (Single line):
SINGLE LINE OF TEXT

MTEXT (Multi-line):
┌─────────────────┐
│ Multiple lines │
│ of text in a │
│ bounded area │
└─────────────────┘

150
 Settings:
• Font (Arial, Romans, etc.)
• Height
• Justification
• Rotation

Shortcut: T [Enter] or MT [Enter]

Icon: A

9.2.2 MODIFYING COMMANDS

The most powerful CAD commands!
Diagram 120: Modify Commands
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

1. MOVE COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: MOVE (or M)

Process:
1. Select object(s)
2. Specify base point
3. Specify destination

BEFORE: AFTER:
┌─────┐
│ │
└─────┘ ┌─────┐
│ │
└─────┘

Shortcut: M [Enter]
Icon: ⊕→

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

2. COPY COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: COPY (or CO)

Process:
1. Select object(s)
2. Specify base point
3. Specify copy location(s)

151
 4. Can create multiple copies

ORIGINAL: COPIES:
┌─────┐ ┌─────┐ ┌─────┐
│ │ │ │ │ │
└─────┘ └─────┘ └─────┘

Shortcut: CO [Enter]
Icon: ⊕⊕

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

3. ROTATE COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: ROTATE (or RO)

Process:
1. Select object(s)
2. Specify base point (pivot)
3. Specify rotation angle

BEFORE: AFTER (45°):

┌─────┐ ╱───╲
│ │ ╱ ╲
└─────┘ ╱ ╲

Shortcut: RO [Enter]
Icon: ↺

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

4. SCALE COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: SCALE (or SC)

Process:
1. Select object(s)
2. Specify base point
3. Specify scale factor
(2 = double size)
(0.5 = half size)

BEFORE: AFTER (×2):

┌──┐ ┌─────┐
│ │ │ │
└──┘ │ │

152
 └─────┘

Shortcut: SC [Enter]
Icon: ⊞ ⊟

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

5. TRIM COMMAND ★ Very Important!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: TRIM (or TR)

Process:
1. Select cutting edge(s)
2. Press Enter
3. Select part to trim

BEFORE: AFTER:
│ │ │ │
│ ┌────┤ │ ┌────
│ │ │ │ │
└────┼────┘ └────┼────┘
Cut here ↑ ↑ Trimmed!

Shortcut: TR [Enter]
Icon: ├┤

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

6. EXTEND COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: EXTEND (or EX)

Process:
1. Select boundary edge(s)
2. Press Enter
3. Select line to extend

BEFORE: AFTER:
│ │ │ │
│ ── │ │ ─────│
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │

Shortcut: EX [Enter]
Icon: ─→│

153
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

7. OFFSET COMMAND ★ Very Important!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: OFFSET (or O)

Process:
1. Specify distance
2. Select object
3. Click which side to offset

BEFORE: AFTER (offset 50):

┌────┐ ┌────┐
│ │ │┌──┐│ ← 50mm
│ │ ││ ││ inside
└────┘ │└──┘│
└────┘

Uses:
• Wall thickness
• Parallel lines
• Border creation

Shortcut: O [Enter]
Icon: ═

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

8. MIRROR COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: MIRROR (or MI)

Process:
1. Select object(s)
2. Specify mirror line (2 points)
3. Keep or delete original

BEFORE: AFTER:
┌──┐ ┌──┐│┌──┐
│ │ → │ ││ │
└──┘ └──┘│└──┘
Mirror line ↑

Shortcut: MI [Enter]
Icon: │◐

154
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

9. ARRAY COMMAND
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: ARRAY (or AR)

Types:

a) RECTANGULAR ARRAY
┌─┐ ┌─┐ ┌─┐
└─┘ └─┘ └─┘
┌─┐ ┌─┐ ┌─┐ ← Rows × Columns
└─┘ └─┘ └─┘ with spacing

b) POLAR ARRAY (Circular)

┌─┐
┌─┐ ┌─┐
┌─┐ • ┌─┐ ← Around center
└─┘ └─┘ at equal angles
└─┘

c) PATH ARRAY
┌─┐ ┌─┐ ┌─┐
└──┘───┘ ← Along a path

Shortcut: AR [Enter]
Icon: ⊞ ⊞ ⊞

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

10. FILLET COMMAND

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: FILLET (or F)

Creates rounded corner:

BEFORE: AFTER (R=10):

│ │
│ │ ╭─
└─── └─╯
Sharp corner Rounded!

Process:
1. Command: FILLET
2. Set Radius (R)
3. Select first line
4. Select second line
155
 Radius = 0 creates sharp corner

Shortcut: F [Enter]
Icon: ╰

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

11. CHAMFER COMMAND

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: CHAMFER (or CHA)

Creates angled corner:

BEFORE: AFTER:
│ │
│ │ ╱
└─── └─╱
Sharp corner Beveled!

Set distances for each side

Shortcut: CHA [Enter]

Icon: └╱

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

12. ERASE COMMAND

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: ERASE (or E)

Simply deletes selected objects

Select → Press Delete key

OR
Command: ERASE → Select → Enter

Shortcut: E [Enter] or Del key

Icon: ⊗

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

13. EXPLODE COMMAND

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

156
 Command: EXPLODE (or X)

Breaks complex objects into parts:

BEFORE: AFTER:
┌─────────┐ ├─────────┤
│Rectangle│ → Individual lines
└─────────┘ that can be
edited separately

Use on: Rectangles, Polylines,

Blocks, Hatches

Shortcut: X [Enter]
Icon: ⊠

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

14. JOIN COMMAND

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════
Command: JOIN (or J)

Combines separate lines into one:

BEFORE: AFTER:
──── ──── → ─────────
Two lines One line

Lines must be:

• Collinear (same line)
• Touching or nearly touching

Shortcut: J [Enter]
Icon: ─┼─

9.2.3 MANAGEMENT COMMANDS

Diagram 121: Layer Management
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

LAYERS - THE MOST IMPORTANT CONCEPT!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

WHAT ARE LAYERS?

Think of layers as transparent sheets stacked on

157
top of each other. Each layer can contain different
drawing elements.

VISUAL CONCEPT:

┌─────────────┐
│ TEXT │ ← Layer 3: Text & dimensions
├─────────────┤
│ ⊗ ⊗ │ ← Layer 2: Electrical symbols
├─────────────┤
│ ┌─────┐ │ ← Layer 1: Walls
│ │ │ │
└──┴─────┴────┘

All layers combined = Complete drawing

LAYER PROPERTIES:

┌──────────┬────────┬──────────┬─────────┐
│ NAME │ COLOR │ LINETYPE │ ON/OFF │
├──────────┼────────┼──────────┼─────────┤
│ 0 │ White │Continuous│ ☑ │ Default
│ Walls │ Red │Continuous│ ☑ │ Active
│ Doors │ Green │Continuous│ ☑ │
│ Windows │ Blue │Continuous│ ☑ │
│Dimensions│ Cyan │Continuous│ ☐ │ Hidden
│ Text │ Yellow │Continuous│ ☑ │
│Electrical│ Magenta│Continuous│ ☑ │
│ Plumbing │ Brown │Continuous│ ☑ │
│ Hidden │ Gray │ Dashed │ │ Locked
└──────────┴────────┴──────────┴─────────┘

WHY USE LAYERS?

1. ORGANIZATION
Keep different elements separate:
• Walls on "Walls" layer
• Dimensions on "Dimensions" layer
• Text on "Text" layer

2. VISIBILITY CONTROL
Turn layers ON/OFF:

All layers ON: Dimensions OFF:

┌────────────┐ ┌────────────┐

158
 │ ←50→ │ │ │
│ ┌────┐ │ │ ┌────┐ │
│ │Text│ ↑ │ │ │ │ │
│ └────┘30 │ │ └────┘ │
└────────────┘ └────────────┘
Cluttered! Clean for presentation!

3. COLOR CODING
Different colors for different elements:
• Red = Walls (thick)
• Blue = Windows
• Green = Doors
• Yellow = Text

4. EDITING CONTROL
Lock layers to prevent accidental changes:
Locked layer = Can see but can't edit

5. PRINTING CONTROL
Choose which layers to print/plot

LAYER COMMANDS:

LAYER (or LA)

┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ LAYER PROPERTIES MANAGER │
├────────────────────────────────┤
│ ☑ New Layer ⊗ Delete │
│ Set Color Linetype │
│ Lock/Unlock On/Off │
└────────────────────────────────┘

LAYMCUR (Make Current)

- Select object
- Its layer becomes active

LAYISO (Layer Isolate)

- Select object
- All other layers turn off

LAYUNISO (Layer Unisolate)

- Restore all layers

LAYER NAMING CONVENTIONS:

Good names: Bad names:

✓ A-Wall-Exterior ✗ Layer1

159
✓ A-Door ✗ New Layer
✓ A-Window ✗ Stuff
✓ E-Lighting ✗ Things
✓ E-Power ✗ asdf
✓ P-Water-Supply
✓ P-Drainage

Prefix codes:
A- = Architectural
E- = Electrical
P- = Plumbing
S- = Structural
M- = Mechanical

TYPICAL ARCHITECTURAL LAYER STRUCTURE:

┌─────────────────┬───────┬──────────┐
│ LAYER NAME │ COLOR │ USE │
├─────────────────┼───────┼──────────┤
│ A-Wall-Exterior │ Red │ Thick │
│ A-Wall-Interior │ Yellow│ Thin │
│ A-Door │ Green │ Doors │
│ A-Window │ Blue │ Windows │
│ A-Furn │ Brown │ Furniture│
│ A-Dim │ Cyan │Dimensions│
│ A-Text │ White │ Labels │
│ A-Hatch │ Gray │ Patterns │
├─────────────────┼───────┼──────────┤
│ E-Light │ Yellow│ Lights │
│ E-Power │Magenta│ Sockets │
│ E-Switch │ Orange│ Switches │
├─────────────────┼───────┼──────────┤
│ P-Fixture │ Blue │ WC, Basin│
│ P-Supply │ Cyan │ Water │
│ P-Waste │ Brown │ Drainage │
└─────────────────┴───────┴──────────┘

LAYER STATES:

BEFORE PLOTTING:
☑ A-Wall-Exterior
☑ A-Door
☑ A-Window
☑ A-Dim (Show dimensions)
☑ A-Text
☐ A-Construction (Hide guides)
☐ E-Light (Hide electrical)

160
☐ P-Fixture (Hide plumbing)

Select what to show in final plot!

9.3 PRODUCING A TECHNICAL DRAWING USING CAD

Diagram 122: CAD Drawing Process
COMPLETE CAD WORKFLOW

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 1: SETUP
═══════════════════════════════════════════════

Command: NEW (or Ctrl+N)

• Start new drawing

Command: UNITS
• Set drawing units:
┌──────────────────────┐
│ Length Type: │
│ ● Decimal │
│ ○ Architectural │
│ │
│ Precision: 0.00 │
│ │
│ Angle Type: │
│ ● Decimal Degrees │
└──────────────────────┘

For architecture: Millimeters

For engineering: Millimeters

Command: LIMITS
• Set drawing boundaries
Lower left: 0,0
Upper right: 420,297 (for A3)

Command: ZOOM ALL (or Z, A)

• View entire drawing area

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 2: CREATE LAYERS

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

161
Command: LAYER (or LA)

Create layers systematically:

1. Walls - Red - Continuous

2. Doors - Green - Continuous
3. Windows - Blue - Continuous
4. Furniture - Brown - Continuous
5. Dimensions - Cyan - Continuous
6. Text - White - Continuous
7. Centerlines - Yellow - Center
8. Hidden - Gray - Dashed

Set "Walls" as current layer

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 3: DRAW BASE GEOMETRY

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

Example: Simple Room Floor Plan

On "Walls" layer:

Command: RECTANGLE
First corner: 0,0
Other corner: @6000,4000
(Creates 6m × 4m rectangle)

Result:
┌──────────────────────┐
│ │
│ 6000mm │
│ │
│ │
└──────────────────────┘
4000mm

Command: OFFSET
Distance: 225 (wall thickness)
Select: Outer rectangle
Side: Inside

Result:
┌──────────────────────┐
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│ ← 225mm
│░ ░│ wall
162
│░ ░│
│░ ░│
│░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░░│
└──────────────────────┘

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 4: ADD OPENINGS

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

Switch to "Doors" layer

Door opening (900mm):

Command: LINE
Draw temporary lines for door position

Command: TRIM
Trim wall lines to create opening

Command: ARC
Create door swing (90° arc)

Result:
┌────────╱─────────────┐
│ ╱ │
│ ╱ Door │
│ │
└──────────────────────┘

Switch to "Windows" layer

Command: LINE
Create window openings (1200mm each)

Result:
┌────────╱─────────────┐
│ ╱ ┌────┐ │
│ ╱ │Win │ │
│ └────┘ │
└──────────────────────┘

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 5: ADD DETAILS

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

163
Switch to "Furniture" layer

Add bathroom fixtures:

• WC symbol
• Basin symbol
• Bath tub

Command: CIRCLE (for basin)

Command: RECTANGLE (for bath)
Use previously learned symbols

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 6: DIMENSION
═══════════════════════════════════════════════

Switch to "Dimensions" layer

Command: DIMLINEAR (or DLI)

Select first point
Select second point
Place dimension line

Result:
←────── 6000 ──────→
┌──────────────────────┐
│ │
4000│ │
│ │
└──────────────────────┘

Command: DIMSTYLE (or D)

Set dimension style:
• Text height: 3mm (scaled)
• Arrow size: 2mm
• Units: Decimal, 0 precision

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 7: ANNOTATE
═══════════════════════════════════════════════

Switch to "Text" layer

Command: MTEXT (or MT)

Add room labels:

164
• "BATHROOM"
• "2500 × 2000"
• Material notes

Command: LEADER
Add specific notes with arrows

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 8: ADD TITLE BLOCK

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

Command: INSERT
Insert pre-made title block
OR
Command: LINE, MTEXT
Draw title block manually

Fill in:
• Drawing title
• Scale
• Date
• Drawn by
• Project info

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 9: PLOT/PRINT
═══════════════════════════════════════════════

Command: PLOT (or Ctrl+P)

Settings:
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ Printer: DWG To PDF │
│ Paper size: A3 │
│ Plot area: Window │
│ Scale: 1:50 │
│ Plot style: monochrome │
│ │
│ ☑ Center plot │
│ ☑ Plot with lineweights │
└──────────────────────────┘

Preview before plotting!

Command: PREVIEW
165
═══════════════════════════════════════════════

STEP 10: SAVE

═══════════════════════════════════════════════

Command: SAVE (or Ctrl+S)

File format: .DWG (native AutoCAD)

Also save as:

Command: SAVEAS
• PDF (for sharing)
• DXF (for compatibility)

Naming convention:
ProjectName_FloorPlan_Rev01_Date.dwg

Example:
NigerianHouse_GroundFloor_R01_20251110.dwg

9.4 COMPARING MANUAL DRAWING AND CAD

Diagram 123: Comprehensive Comparison
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════

DETAILED COMPARISON: MANUAL vs CAD

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════

1. STARTUP COSTS
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Initial Cost: ₦50,000 - ₦100,000
• Drawing board: ₦15,000
• T-square: ₦3,000
• Set squares: ₦2,000
• Compass set: ₦5,000
• Scales: ₦3,000
• Pencils/pens: ₦5,000
• Paper: ₦10,000
• Misc tools: ₦10,000

CAD:
Initial Cost: ₦500,000 - ₦1,500,000
• Computer: ₦400,000

166
• Monitor (large): ₦100,000
• Mouse/keyboard: ₦20,000
• CAD software: ₦500,000/year
(or free alternatives)
• Plotter (optional): ₦2,000,000

WINNER: Manual (Lower initial investment)

2. SPEED
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Simple drawing (A3 floor plan): 4-8 hours
• Layout: 30 min
• Draw walls: 1 hour
• Add details: 2 hours
• Dimension: 1 hour
• Title block: 30 min
• Cleanup: 30 min

CAD:
Same drawing: 1-2 hours
• Setup layers: 10 min
• Draw walls (offset): 15 min
• Add details (copy/block): 30 min
• Dimension (automatic): 15 min
• Title block (template): 5 min

WINNER: CAD (3-4× faster)

3. ACCURACY
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Typical accuracy: ±0.5mm
Limited by:
• Hand steadiness
• Tool quality
• Paper stability
• Human error

CAD:
Accuracy: ±0.001mm or better
• Computer precision
• Snap to exact points
• Coordinate input
• No measurement error

Example:

167
Manual: "approximately 2450mm"
CAD: Exactly 2450.000mm

WINNER: CAD (Perfect precision)

4. EDITING
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Changes require:
• Erase (damages paper)
• Redraw completely
• Or start new sheet
Time: 30min - 2hours per change

Example: Move door 500mm

┌────╱───┐ Change ┌─────╱──┐
│ ╱ │ → │ ╱ │
│ ╱ │ │ ╱ │
└────────┘ └────────┘

Process:
1. Erase old door (messy)
2. Fill in wall
3. Draw new opening
4. Redraw door
5. Fix dimensions
6. Redraw title block (date)

CAD:
Same change: 30 seconds
Commands:
1. MOVE (door)
2. TRIM (wall)
3. UPDATE (dimension automatically)

WINNER: CAD (100× faster edits)

5. STORAGE
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
• Physical sheets (large)
• Requires flat file cabinet
• Risk of:
- Fire
- Water damage
- Tearing
- Fading

168
 - Pest damage
- Lost/stolen

Storage for 100 A1 drawings:

• Cabinet: ₦150,000
• Space: 2m × 1m × 0.5m
• Weight: 50kg

CAD:
• Digital files (tiny)
• 100 drawings ≈ 100MB
• Stored on:
- Computer hard drive
- USB drive (₦5,000)
- Cloud (Google Drive, etc.)
• Backups easy
• No degradation
• Searchable

WINNER: CAD (Infinitely better)

6. SHARING
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Options:
a) Original:
- Hand deliver
- Risk of damage/loss

b) Copy (Blueprint service):

- Cost: ₦1,000 per A1 sheet
- Time: Travel + waiting
- Quality: May degrade
- Send by: Courier (₦2,000+)
- Delivery: 1-3 days

Total for 5 copies to 3 locations:

Cost: ₦15,000 + ₦6,000 = ₦21,000
Time: 2-3 days

CAD:
Options:
a) Email:
- Cost: Free (internet data only)
- Time: Seconds
- Quality: Perfect
- Recipients: Unlimited

169
b) Cloud sharing:
- Google Drive
- Dropbox
- OneDrive
- Instant access
- Version control

Total: ₦0, Instant delivery

WINNER: CAD (Free + Instant)

7. REPETITION
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Drawing same symbol 100 times:
Example: Window symbol

●━━━━━● × 100
Time per symbol: 2 minutes
Total: 200 minutes = 3.3 hours

Must draw each one individually!

CAD:
Same task:
1. Draw symbol once: 2 minutes
2. COPY command: 30 seconds
3. Or save as BLOCK
4. INSERT 99 times: 1 minute

Total: 3.5 minutes

WINNER: CAD (60× faster)

8. 3D VISUALIZATION
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Options:
• Isometric drawing (difficult)
• Oblique drawing (time-consuming)
• Multiple 2D views
• Physical model (expensive)

Time for isometric view: 4-6 hours

Skill level: Very high

CAD:
170
Options:
• Convert 2D to 3D: Minutes
• Rotate any angle: Real-time
• Realistic rendering: Hours
• Virtual walkthrough: Yes

Time: 10 minutes - 2 hours

Skill level: Moderate

Example:
┌─────┐ 2D ╱────╲ 3D
│ │ Floor ╱│ │╲ Model
└─────┘ Plan ╱ │ │ ╲
╱ └────┘ ╲

WINNER: CAD (Easy 3D)

9. COLLABORATION
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Team work:
• One person draws at a time
• Pass sheet person to person
• Risk of damage
• No simultaneous editing
• Hard to track changes

CAD:
Team work:
• Multiple people
• Simultaneous editing (cloud)
• Layer-based division
• Track changes
• Version control
• Comments/markup
• Real-time updates

Example:
Architect draws walls
Engineer adds structure
Electrician adds electrical
ALL AT SAME TIME!

WINNER: CAD (True collaboration)

10. COST OVER TIME

────────────────────────────────────────────────────

171
MANUAL:
Ongoing costs per year:
• Paper: ₦50,000
• Pens/pencils: ₦20,000
• Erasers: ₦5,000
• Replacement tools: ₦10,000
• Printing copies: ₦100,000
Total: ₦185,000/year

5-year total: ₦925,000

CAD:
Ongoing costs per year:
• Software subscription: ₦500,000
(or free: LibreCAD, DraftSight)
• Electricity: ₦50,000
• Computer upgrade: ₦100,000/5yrs
Total: ₦570,000/year (paid)
Or ₦60,000/year (free software)

5-year total: ₦2,850,000 (paid)

Or ₦300,000 (free)

WINNER: Depends on software choice

11. SKILL REQUIREMENTS

────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Must learn:
• Drawing techniques
• Line weights
• Lettering
• Perspective
• Hand-eye coordination
• Takes: 2-4 years to master

CAD:
Must learn:
• Software interface
• Commands
• Layer management
• Computer basics
• Takes: 3-6 months to be productive

WINNER: CAD (Faster learning)

12. QUALITY & CONSISTENCY

172
────────────────────────────────────────────────────
MANUAL:
Quality depends on:
• Draughtsman's skill
• Time of day (fatigue)
• Lighting conditions
• Tool condition
• Varies person to person

Consistency: Variable

CAD:
Quality depends on:
• Command knowledge
• Settings
• Always perfect lines
• Always consistent
• Same quality everyone

Consistency: Perfect

WINNER: CAD (Consistent quality)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════

FINAL VERDICT:

┌────────────────┬─────────┬─────────┬──────────┐
│ CATEGORY │ MANUAL │ CAD │ WINNER │
├────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼──────────┤
│ Startup Cost │ ★★★ │ ★ │ Manual │
│ Speed │ ★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
│ Accuracy │ ★★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
│ Editing │ ★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
│ Storage │ ★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
│ Sharing │ ★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
│ Repetition │ ★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
│ 3D Visual │ ★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
│ Collaboration │ ★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
│ Long-term Cost │ ★★ │ ★★ │ Tie │
│ Learning Curve │ ★★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
│ Quality │ ★★ │ ★★★ │ CAD │
└────────────────┴─────────┴─────────┴──────────┘

OVERALL WINNER: CAD (10 out of 12 categories)

BUT: Manual drawing skills are still important

173
for understanding fundamentals!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════

EVALUATION
1. Name three main sections of the CAD interface and explain the function of each.

2. What is a "Layer" in CAD, and why is it the most important organizational tool? Give three reasons.

3. Name four Drawing commands and four Modifying commands in CAD. Briefly state what each does.

4. Explain the difference between the TRIM and EXTEND commands. When would you use each?

5. What is the OFFSET command used for? Give two practical examples in architectural drawing.

6. List five advantages of CAD over manual drawing.

7. What is a "Block" in CAD, and why is it a time-saver? Give an example.

8. Explain how layers can be used to control what appears on a printed drawing.

ASSIGNMENT
Part 1: CAD Command Research
1. Watch a beginner's AutoCAD tutorial video (15-30 minutes) online.

2. Write down ten CAD commands you learned from the video:

o Command name
o Keyboard shortcut
o What it does
o When to use it
Example format:
┌──────────┬──────────┬─────────────┬────────────┐
│ COMMAND │SHORTCUT │ FUNCTION │ USE │
├──────────┼──────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ LINE │ L │Draw straight│Connect │
│ │ │line │points │
├──────────┼──────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ CIRCLE │ C │Draw circle │Holes, │
│ │ │ │curves │
└──────────┴──────────┴─────────────┴────────────┘

Part 2: Layer Planning Exercise

174
 3. You are designing a 2-bedroom house. Plan a complete layer structure:
Create a table showing:
┌────────────────┬────────┬───────────┬───────────┐
│ LAYER NAME │ COLOR │ LINETYPE │ USE │
├────────────────┼────────┼───────────┼───────────┤
│ A-Wall-Ext │ Red │Continuous │ Outer │
│ │ │ │ walls │
└────────────────┴────────┴───────────┴───────────┘

Include layers for:

 External walls
 Internal walls
 Doors
 Windows
 Furniture
 Dimensions
 Text
 Electrical (lights, switches, sockets)
 Plumbing (fixtures)
 Centerlines
 Hidden lines
Minimum: 12 layers with proper names, colors, and purposes.
Part 3: Command Sequence
4. Write the step-by-step command sequence to draw a simple bathroom (2m × 2.5m) in
CAD:
Example:
STEP 1: Setup
Command: UNITS
Set to: Millimeters

STEP 2: Create layers

Command: LAYER
New layers: Walls (Red), Doors (Green), etc.

STEP 3: Draw outer walls

Command: RECTANGLE
First point: 0,0
Other corner: @2000,2500

[Continue with all steps...]

175
Include commands for:
 Room outline
 Wall thickness (using OFFSET)
 Door opening (using TRIM)
 WC symbol
 Basin symbol
 Dimensions
Part 4: Comparison Essay
5. Write a short essay (1-2 pages) comparing manual drawing and CAD based on YOUR
experience:
Topics to cover:
 Which do you find easier to learn?
 Which produces better quality?
 Which would you prefer to use professionally?
 Will manual drawing skills still be needed?
 Justify your answers with examples
Part 5: Practical Exercise (If computer available)
6. If you have access to CAD software (AutoCAD, LibreCAD, DraftSight, etc.):
Draw a simple floor plan showing:
 One rectangular room (3m × 4m)
 Wall thickness (225mm using OFFSET)
 One door (900mm with swing)
 One window (1200mm)
 Room label ("BEDROOM")
 Basic dimensions
Save as: YourName_RoomPlan.dwg (or PDF) Print or screenshot your work.

176
WEEK 10: COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (ADVANCED
APPLICATIONS)
10.1 ADVANCED CAD TECHNIQUES
Building on basic commands, we now explore powerful productivity features.

10.1.1 BLOCKS - THE ULTIMATE TIME-SAVER

Diagram 124: Understanding Blocks
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

WHAT ARE BLOCKS?

A BLOCK is a collection of objects saved as a

single named unit that can be inserted repeatedly.

CONCEPT:

Without Blocks: With Blocks:

Draw chair 50 times Draw chair once
│ │ │ │ │ Save as block
│ │ │ │ │ Insert 50 times
│ │ │ │ │ ▼
▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ├─┤ ← Single unit
├─┤├─┤├─┤├─┤├─┤ Insert, insert, insert...
└─┘└─┘└─┘└─┘└─┘ ├─┤├─┤├─┤├─┤├─┤
└─┘└─┘└─┘└─┘└─┘

Time: 100 minutes Time: 5 minutes!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

CREATING A BLOCK

Example: Door Symbol

STEP 1: Draw the door

┌─────────╱
│ ╱ ← Door swing (arc)
│ ╱
│ ╱ ← Door leaf
│ ╱
│ ╱
└────

177
STEP 2: Command: BLOCK (or B)

BLOCK DEFINITION DIALOG:

┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Name: DOOR_900 │ ← Give descriptive name
├──────────────────────────────┤
│ Base point: │
│ [Pick Point] ← Click corner │
│ │
│ Objects: │
│ [Select Objects] ← Select all│
│ │
│ ☑ Retain │ ← Keep original
│ ○ Convert to block │
│ ○ Delete │
└──────────────────────────────┘

Base point = Insertion point

(Usually a corner or center)

STEP 3: Click OK
Block is now saved in drawing!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

INSERTING A BLOCK

Command: INSERT (or I)

INSERT DIALOG:
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Name: [DOOR_900 ▼] │ ← Select block
├──────────────────────────────┤
│ Insertion point: │
│ ☑ Specify On-screen │ ← Click location
│ │
│ Scale: │
│ X: 1.0 Y: 1.0 │ ← Keep 1:1
│ │
│ Rotation: │
│ Angle: 0° ☑ On-screen │ ← Rotate if needed
└──────────────────────────────┘

178
Result:
┌─────────╱ ← Inserted!
│ ╱
│ ╱
└────

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BLOCK ADVANTAGES

1. CONSISTENCY
Every instance identical
├─┤ = ├─┤ = ├─┤
No variation!

2. SPEED
Insert in 2 seconds
vs Draw in 2 minutes

3. EDITING
Edit block definition once:
ALL instances update automatically!

Before: After edit:

├─┤├─┤├─┤├─┤ ├──┤├──┤├──┤├──┤
└─┘└─┘└─┘└─┘ └──┘└──┘└──┘└──┘
Edit: BEDIT or REFEDIT
ALL 50 chairs update instantly!

4. FILE SIZE
50 separate drawings: LARGE file
1 block × 50 references: SMALL file
(Saves disk space)

5. ATTRIBUTES
Can add data to blocks:
• Door number
• Material
• Cost
• Supplier
Generates automatic schedules!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

COMMON ARCHITECTURAL BLOCKS

179
PLUMBING:
┌───────────────────────────────────┐
│ DOOR_SINGLE_900 │
│ ┌─────╱ │
│ │ ╱ │
│ └─── │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ DOOR_DOUBLE_1800 │
│ ┌─────╱╲─────┐ │
│ │ ╱ ╲ │ │
│ └─── ───┘ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ WINDOW_SLIDING_1200 │
│ ┌────┬────┐ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ └────┴────┘ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ WC_SUITE │
│ ┌───┐ │
│ │╱─╲│ ← Cistern │
│ ├───┤ │
│ │ ○ │ ← Bowl │
│ └───┘ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ WHB_PEDESTAL │
│ ╭───╮ │
│ │ ○ │ ← Basin │
│ ╰─┬─╯ │
│ │ ← Pedestal │
│ │ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ BATH_1700 │
│ ┌──────────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ └──────────┘ │
└───────────────────────────────────┘

180
FURNITURE:
┌───────────────────────────────────┐
│ CHAIR_PLAN │
│ ├─┤ │
│ └─┘ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ TABLE_DINING_6SEATER │
│ ┌────────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ └────────┘ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ BED_DOUBLE │
│ ┌─────────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ BED │ │
│ └─────────┘ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ SOFA_3SEATER │
│ ┌───────────┐ │
│ │═══════════│ │
│ └───────────┘ │
└───────────────────────────────────┘

ELECTRICAL:
┌───────────────────────────────────┐
│ LIGHT_CEILING │
│ ⊗ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ SWITCH_1WAY │
│ S │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ SWITCH_2WAY │
│ S₂ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ SOCKET_SINGLE │
│ ║⊐ │
├───────────────────────────────────┤
│ SOCKET_DOUBLE │
│ ║⊐ │
│ ║⊐ │
└───────────────────────────────────┘

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BLOCK LIBRARIES

Professional firms maintain libraries:

181
COMPANY BLOCK LIBRARY
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Architectural/ │
│ ├─ Doors/ │
│ │ ├─ Single_900.dwg │
│ │ ├─ Single_1200.dwg │
│ │ └─ Double_1800.dwg │
│ ├─ Windows/ │
│ │ ├─ Sliding_1200.dwg │
│ │ └─ Casement_900.dwg │
│ ├─ Furniture/ │
│ │ ├─ Chairs/ │
│ │ ├─ Tables/ │
│ │ └─ Beds/ │
│ └─ Fixtures/ │
│ ├─ [Link] │
│ ├─ [Link] │
│ └─ [Link] │
│ │
│ Electrical/ │
│ ├─ [Link] │
│ ├─ [Link] │
│ └─ [Link] │
│ │
│ Symbols/ │
│ ├─ North_Arrow.dwg │
│ ├─ Scale_Bar.dwg │
│ └─ Title_Block.dwg │
└─────────────────────────────┘

ONLINE RESOURCES:
• [Link]
• [Link]
• Autodesk Content Library
• Manufacturer websites
(Kohler, TOTO, etc. provide
CAD blocks of their products!)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

DYNAMIC BLOCKS (Advanced)

Regular Block: Dynamic Block:

├─┤ ├──┤ ← Stretch!
└─┘ └──┘

Fixed size Adjustable

182
Dynamic blocks have:
• Grips for stretching
• Flip options
• Multiple configurations
• Visibility states

Example: Door block

• Flip left/right
• Change width (600-1200mm)
• Show/hide frame
ALL FROM ONE BLOCK!

Command: BEDIT (Block Editor)

Add parameters & actions

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

WBLOCK (Write Block)

Save block as separate file:

Command: WBLOCK (or W)

Saves block to:

C:/Blocks/DOOR_900.dwg

Can now:
• Share with others
• Insert into any drawing
• Build block library

vs BLOCK command:
• Only saved in current drawing
• Not accessible elsewhere

10.1.2 ATTRIBUTES - DATA IN BLOCKS

Diagram 125: Block Attributes
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ATTRIBUTES = TEXT DATA ATTACHED TO BLOCKS

Purpose: Extract information automatically

183
Example: Door Schedule

STEP 1: CREATE BLOCK WITH ATTRIBUTES

Drawing door:
┌─────╱
│ ╱
└───

Command: ATTDEF (Attribute Definition)

Attribute 1:
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ Tag: DOOR_NO │ ← Database field
│ Prompt: "Door number?" │ ← Question to user
│ Default: D01 │ ← Default value
└──────────────────────────┘

Attribute 2:
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ Tag: DOOR_WIDTH │
│ Prompt: "Width (mm)?" │
│ Default: 900 │
└──────────────────────────┘

Attribute 3:
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ Tag: DOOR_TYPE │
│ Prompt: "Type?" │
│ Default: Hardwood │
└──────────────────────────┘

Now create block with these attributes:

Command: BLOCK
Select: Door + All attributes

STEP 2: INSERT BLOCK

Command: INSERT → DOOR_900

Dialog appears:
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ Door number? [D01_] │ ← Enter: D01
│ Width (mm)? [900_] │ ← Enter: 900
│ Type? [Hardwood_] │ ← Enter: Mahogany
└──────────────────────────┘

184
Result:
┌─────╱
│ ╱ D01
└───

Block inserted with data!

STEP 3: EXTRACT DATA

Command: EATTEXT (Extract Attributes)

OR: DATAEXTRACTION wizard

Creates table/Excel:

DOOR SCHEDULE
┌────────┬───────┬──────────┬──────────┐
│ MARK │ WIDTH │ TYPE │ QUANTITY │
├────────┼───────┼──────────┼──────────┤
│ D01 │ 900 │ Mahogany │ 4 │
│ D02 │ 1200 │ Mahogany │ 2 │
│ D03 │ 900 │ Flush │ 6 │
│ D04 │ 800 │ Hardwood │ 1 │
└────────┴───────┴──────────┴──────────┘

Automatic from drawing!

No manual counting!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

1. DOOR SCHEDULE
Extract: Mark, Size, Type, Material

2. WINDOW SCHEDULE
Extract: Mark, Size, Type, Glazing

3. ELECTRICAL SCHEDULE
Extract: Fixture type, Wattage, Quantity

4. FURNITURE LIST
Extract: Item, Model, Cost

5. ROOM DATA
Extract: Name, Area, Finish

185
6. EQUIPMENT TAG
Extract: Equipment ID, Manufacturer, Model

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ATTRIBUTE MODES

☑ Invisible
Attribute hidden but data stored

☑ Constant
Same value for all inserts

☑ Verify
Confirm value on insertion

☑ Preset
Use default without prompting

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

EDITING ATTRIBUTES

After insertion:

Command: ATTEDIT
Or double-click block

Change:
D01 → D02
900 → 1200
Mahogany → Teak

Command: BATTMAN (Block Attribute Manager)

Edit all attributes in drawing at once

10.1.3 XREF (EXTERNAL REFERENCES)

Diagram 126: Working with XREFs
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

WHAT ARE XREFS?

186
XREF = External Reference
Link to another drawing file

Like a window to another drawing

CONCEPT:

Without XREF: With XREF:

Copy architectural Link to
drawing into architectural
structural drawing drawing

┌─────────────┐ ┌─────────────┐
│ STRUCTURAL │ │ STRUCTURAL │
│ │ │ ┌───────┐ │
│ ┌────┐ │ │ │ XREF │ │ ← Link
│ │Copy│ │ │ │ A-Plan│ │
│ └────┘ │ │ └───────┘ │
│ │ │ │
│ File: 5MB │ │ File: 500KB │
└─────────────┘ └─────────────┘

If architect changes: If architect changes:

❌ Must copy again ✓ Auto-updates!
❌ Out of sync ✓ Always current

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

WHY USE XREFS?

1. COORDINATION
Multiple disciplines work on same base:

[Link] (Base)
↓ XREF
┌────┴────┬────────┬──────────┐
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
STRUCT ELEC PLUMB HVAC
.dwg .dwg .dwg .dwg

All reference same base!

Base updates → All see changes

2. FILE SIZE
Main drawing stays small
Only reference, not copy

3. TEAM WORK
187
 Architect works on [Link]
Engineer works on [Link]
Both see changes in real-time!

4. VERSIONS
Easy to swap versions:
XREF: FloorPlan_V1.dwg
Change to: FloorPlan_V2.dwg

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ATTACHING AN XREF

Command: XREF (or XR)

XREF MANAGER:
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ [Attach] [Detach] [Reload] │
├────────────────────────────────┤
│ Reference File: │
│ ☑ Architectural_Plan.dwg │
│ ☐ Electrical_Layout.dwg │
│ ☐ Plumbing_Layout.dwg │
└────────────────────────────────┘

Click [Attach]:
1. Browse to file
2. Select insertion point
3. Set scale (usually 1:1)
4. Click OK

XREF appears in current drawing

But NOT copied - just linked!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

XREF LAYER CONTROL

XREFed drawings have prefix:

XREF File: [Link]

Layers:
• Walls
• Doors
• Windows

188
In current drawing appears as:
• ARCH|Walls
• ARCH|Doors
• ARCH|Windows

Can control:
☑ Freeze ARCH|Doors (hide doors)
☑ Color override (make all gray)
Lock all XREF layers

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

XREF STATES

┌──────────────────────────────────┐
│ Status: │
├──────────────────────────────────┤
│ ✓ Loaded - Currently shown │
│ ↻ Reload - Refresh changes │
│ ⊗ Unload - Hide temporarily │
│ ⊘ Detach - Remove reference │
│ ? Not Found - File moved! │
│ ⚠ Unresolved - Missing file │
└──────────────────────────────────┘

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

XREF PATH TYPES

1. FULL PATH (Absolute)

C:/Projects/Building_A/Floor_Plans/[Link]

Problem: If folder moves, XREF breaks!

2. RELATIVE PATH
../Floor_Plans/[Link]

Better: Works if whole project folder moves

3. NO PATH
[Link]

Best: Must be in same folder

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

189
TYPICAL WORKFLOW

ARCHITECTURAL FIRM:
1. Architect creates base drawing
File: A-100_Ground_Floor.dwg

2. Sends to consultants:
• Structural Engineer
• Electrical Engineer
• Plumbing Engineer

3. Each consultant:
• Creates new drawing
• XREFs A-100_Ground_Floor.dwg
• Adds their discipline work

4. Architect updates base

• Changes wall location

5. All consultant drawings:

• Auto-update next opening
• See new wall location
• Adjust their work accordingly

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

XREF vs BLOCK

┌──────────────┬───────────┬─────────┐
│ │ BLOCK │ XREF │
├──────────────┼───────────┼─────────┤
│ Copied? │ Yes │ No │
│ File size │ Larger │ Smaller │
│ Updates │ Manual │ Auto │
│ Use for │ Repetitive│ Base │
│ │ symbols │ drawing │
│ Best for │ Furniture,│ Consult.│
│ │ fixtures │ coord. │
└──────────────┴───────────┴─────────┘

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BIND XREF

Convert XREF to permanent part:

190
Command: XREFBIND

Options:
• Bind - Make permanent copy
• Insert - Merge into drawing

Use when:
• Sending to client
• Final archive
• No more changes expected

After binding:
ARCH|Walls → Walls
(Becomes regular layer)

10.1.4 ANNOTATIVE SCALING

Diagram 127: Annotative Objects
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

THE SCALING PROBLEM

You draw at 1:1 (real size):

Wall is 5000mm → Draw 5000mm

But printing at different scales:

• 1:50 for floor plan
• 1:100 for site plan
• 1:20 for details

Text needs to be:

• Readable on paper
• Same printed size
• But different scales!

PROBLEM:

At 1:50 scale: At 1:100 scale:

┌────────────┐ ┌────────────┐
│ TEXT │ │ TEXT │
│ 5mm high │ │ 5mm high │
│ │ │ │
│ ├─────┤ │ │ ├───┤ │
│ 100mm │ │ 100mm │
└────────────┘ └────────────┘

191
Printed text: Printed text:
5mm on paper 5mm on paper

But wall: But wall:

100mm × 50 = 2mm 100mm × 100 = 1mm

Text TOO BIG! Text HUGE!

SOLUTION: ANNOTATIVE OBJECTS

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ANNOTATIVE = Auto-scaling

Text/Dims that adjust to drawing scale

SETTING UP ANNOTATIVE TEXT

Command: STYLE (Text Style)

┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Style: Standard │
│ Font: Arial │
│ Height: 3mm │
│ │
│ ☑ Annotative ← CHECK THIS! │
│ │
│ Paper text height: 3mm │
│ (Actual printed size) │
└──────────────────────────────┘

Now create text:

Command: TEXT
"BEDROOM"

In Model Space at 1:1:

Text appears HUGE (maybe 300mm!)

But in Viewport at 1:100:

Text appears 3mm on paper ✓

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

HOW IT WORKS

192
ANNOTATION SCALE setting:

Status bar: [1:100 ▼]

↑ Current scale

Change to 1:50:
• Annotative objects resize!
• Still print at 3mm

Change to 1:20:
• Resize again!
• Still print at 3mm

MULTI-SCALE SUPPORT

One text, multiple scales:

Object properties:
☑ Scale 1:50
☑ Scale 1:100
☑ Scale 1:20

Text appears correctly at ALL scales!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ANNOTATIVE DIMENSIONS

Command: DIMSTYLE (or D)

┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Dimension Style: Standard │
│ │
│ Text height: 3mm │
│ Arrow size: 2mm │
│ │
│ ☑ Annotative │
│ │
│ Adjust for: Paper space │
└──────────────────────────────┘

Result:
Dimensions always legible
regardless of drawing scale!

193
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ANNOTATIVE BLOCKS

Symbols (North arrow, etc.)

Command: BLOCK

┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Name: NORTH_ARROW │
│ │
│ ☑ Annotative │
│ │
│ Paper size: 20mm │
└──────────────────────────────┘

North arrow always 20mm on paper

whether 1:50 or 1:1000 scale!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SCALE LIST

Set scales used in project:

Command: SCALELISTADD

Add:
• 1:1
• 1:5
• 1:10
• 1:20
• 1:50
• 1:100
• 1:200

Annotative objects use this list

10.2 SPECIALIZED CAD APPLICATIONS

Different fields use CAD differently.
Diagram 128: CAD by Discipline
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

194
1. ARCHITECTURAL CAD (AutoCAD, Revit, ArchiCAD)
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PRIMARY USE:
• Building design
• Space planning
• Documentation

TYPICAL DRAWINGS:
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ • Site plans │
│ • Floor plans │
│ • Elevations │
│ • Sections │
│ • Details │
│ • 3D renderings │
└────────────────────────────────┘

SPECIAL FEATURES:
• Wall tools (auto-cleanup)
• Door/window insertion
• Space/area calculation
• Material libraries
• Rendering

EXAMPLE WORKFLOW:
1. Site analysis
2. Concept sketches
3. Floor plan development
4. 3D massing
5. Detail design
6. Construction docs
7. Rendering/presentation

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

2. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING CAD (AutoCAD, STAAD, SAP)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PRIMARY USE:
• Structural analysis
• Load calculations
• Foundation design
• Steel/concrete detailing

TYPICAL DRAWINGS:
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ • Foundation plans │

195
│ • Framing plans │
│ • Column schedules │
│ • Beam details │
│ • Reinforcement details │
│ • Connection details │
└────────────────────────────────┘

SPECIAL FEATURES:
• Load analysis
• Structural member library
• Rebar detailing
• Connection design
• Bill of materials

INTEGRATION:
XREF architectural plans
Add structural elements on top

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

3. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CAD (SolidWorks, Inventor)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PRIMARY USE:
• Product design
• Machine parts
• Assemblies
• Manufacturing drawings

TYPICAL DRAWINGS:
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ • Part drawings (detailed) │
│ • Assembly drawings │
│ • Exploded views │
│ • BOM (Bill of Materials) │
│ • Machining drawings │
└────────────────────────────────┘

SPECIAL FEATURES:
• Parametric modeling
• Constraints
• Motion simulation
• Stress analysis
• GD&T (Geometric tolerancing)

3D FOCUS:
Design in 3D first
2D drawings extracted automatically

196
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

4. CIVIL ENGINEERING CAD (Civil 3D, 12d)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PRIMARY USE:
• Road design
• Land development
• Surveying
• Drainage design

TYPICAL DRAWINGS:
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ • Survey plans │
│ • Contour maps │
│ • Road profiles │
│ • Drainage layouts │
│ • Earthwork calculations │
└────────────────────────────────┘

SPECIAL FEATURES:
• Terrain modeling
• Road alignment
• Pipe networks
• Quantity takeoff
• GPS integration

UNIQUE TOOLS:
• Digital elevation models (DEM)
• Cross-sections
• Volume calculations

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

5. ELECTRICAL CAD (AutoCAD Electrical, EPLAN)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PRIMARY USE:
• Circuit design
• Panel layouts
• Wiring diagrams
• Control systems

TYPICAL DRAWINGS:
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ • Schematic diagrams │

197
│ • Single-line diagrams │
│ • Panel layouts │
│ • Wiring diagrams │
│ • Cable schedules │
└────────────────────────────────┘

SPECIAL FEATURES:
• Symbol libraries (IEEE/IEC)
• Wire numbering
• Component database
• PLC integration
• Automatic reports

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

6. PLUMBING/MEP CAD (Revit MEP, AutoCAD MEP)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PRIMARY USE:
• Piping layouts
• HVAC design
• Plumbing systems
• Coordination

TYPICAL DRAWINGS:
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ • Piping isometrics │
│ • HVAC layouts │
│ • Plumbing plans │
│ • Riser diagrams │
│ • Equipment schedules │
└────────────────────────────────┘

SPECIAL FEATURES:
• Pipe routing
• Duct sizing
• Clash detection
• Equipment libraries
• Load calculations

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

7. LANDSCAPE CAD (AutoCAD, Vectorworks Landmark)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

PRIMARY USE:
• Site planning

198
• Garden design
• Irrigation
• Hardscape

TYPICAL DRAWINGS:
┌────────────────────────────────┐
│ • Site plans │
│ • Planting plans │
│ • Grading plans │
│ • Irrigation layouts │
│ • Detail drawings │
└────────────────────────────────┘

SPECIAL FEATURES:
• Plant libraries
• Site analysis
• 3D terrain
• Sunlight analysis
• Material schedules

10.3 BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING (BIM)

The Future of CAD
Diagram 129: BIM Explained
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

TRADITIONAL CAD vs BIM

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

TRADITIONAL CAD (2D)

────────────────────────────────────────────────
Just lines and circles:

┌─────────┐
│ │ ← Rectangle (4 lines)
└─────────┘

Software sees:
• Line 1: From (0,0) to (5000,0)
• Line 2: From (5000,0) to (5000,3000)
• Line 3: From (5000,3000) to (0,3000)

199
• Line 4: From (0,3000) to (0,0)

NO intelligence!
Just geometry.

BIM (Building Information Modeling)

────────────────────────────────────────────────
Smart objects:

┌═════════┐
║ WALL ║ ← Wall object
║ Concrete║
║ 225mm ║
└═════════┘

Software knows:
• Type: Exterior wall
• Material: Concrete block
• Thickness: 225mm
• Height: 3000mm
• Thermal properties: R-value 2.5
• Cost: ₦15,000/m²
• Fire rating: 2 hours
• Supplier: Dangote
• Weight: 450kg/m²

INTELLIGENT object!
Contains DATA.

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BIM MODEL = VIRTUAL BUILDING

One 3D model contains:

• Geometry (shape)
• Data (properties)
• Relationships (connections)
┌───────────────────────────────┐
│ BIM MODEL │
│ │
│ 3D Geometry + Information │
│ ╱│╲ │
│ ╱ │ ╲ ← Roof │
│ ╱══╧══╲ knows: │
│ │ ┌──┐ │ • Material │
│ │ │WC│ │ • Cost │
│ │ └──┘ │ • Supplier │

200
│ │ │ • Quantity │
│ ════════ ← Foundation │
│ knows: │
│ • Depth │
│ • Concrete │
│ • Reinf. │
└───────────────────────────────┘

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BIM ADVANTAGES

1. SINGLE SOURCE OF TRUTH

───────────────────────
One model → All drawings

Change wall in 3D:

• Floor plan updates ✓
• Elevation updates ✓
• Section updates ✓
• Schedule updates ✓
• Quantities update ✓

vs CAD:
Change wall:
• Must edit 5+ drawings ✗
• Easy to miss one ✗
• Inconsistencies ✗

2. AUTOMATIC SCHEDULES
─────────────────────
Count objects automatically:

DOOR SCHEDULE (Auto-generated)

┌─────┬─────┬─────┬─────┐
│MARK │SIZE │TYPE │QTY │
├─────┼─────┼─────┼─────┤
│ D01 │ 900 │Wood │ 4 │ ← From model
│ D02 │1200 │Wood │ 2 │
│ D03 │2100 │Steel│ 1 │
└─────┴─────┴─────┴─────┘

Add door → Schedule updates!

vs CAD: Manual counting ✗

3. CLASH DETECTION
────────────────
Find conflicts before building:

201
 ┌─────────────┐
│ ╱│╲ │
│ ╱ │ ╲ │
│ ══ ❌══ │ ← BEAM through DUCT!
││duct│beam│ │ Detected!
│ ═════ │
└─────────────┘

Software finds:
• Pipe through beam
• Duct through wall
• Light in ceiling void

Fix in model → Avoid site problem!

4. QUANTITY TAKEOFF
──────────────────
Automatic material quantities:

Click wall → Software shows:

• Concrete blocks: 1,245 No
• Mortar: 2.3m³
• Plaster: 87m²
• Paint: 15 liters
• Cost: ₦428,750

Real-time cost estimation!

5. 4D (TIME)
──────────
Add construction schedule:

Week 1: Foundation ──█░░░░░

Week 2: Walls ──────█░░░░
Week 3: Roof ───────█░░░
Week 4: Finishes ────█░

Visualize construction sequence

Before building starts!

6. 5D (COST)
──────────
Link to pricing database:

Wall (225mm concrete):

• Blocks: ₦250 each
• Labor: ₦2,000/m²
• Total wall cost: ₦487,500

202
 Change material → Cost updates!
Budget tracking real-time

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BIM SOFTWARE

ARCHITECTURAL:
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Autodesk Revit (Most common)│
│ • Parametric │
│ • Families (objects) │
│ • Multi-discipline │
│ │
│ ArchiCAD (Graphisoft) │
│ • User-friendly │
│ • Mac compatible │
│ • Good visualization │
│ │
│ Vectorworks Architect │
│ • Hybrid 2D/3D │
│ • Good for small firms │
└─────────────────────────────┘

STRUCTURAL:
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Revit Structure │
│ Tekla Structures │
│ • Steel detailing │
│ • Connection design │
└─────────────────────────────┘

MEP:
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Revit MEP │
│ • Piping │
│ • Ductwork │
│ • Electrical │
└─────────────────────────────┘

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BIM WORKFLOW

TRADITIONAL: BIM:
──────────────── ────────────────
Architect draws Architect builds

203
→ Paper to engineer 3D BIM model
→ Engineer redraws → Share model
→ QS counts → Engineer opens
→ Contractor plans → QS extracts
→ Contractor views

Sequential ✗ Concurrent ✓
Slow ✗ Fast ✓
Errors ✗ Coordinated ✓

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BIM CHALLENGES IN NIGERIA

1. HIGH SOFTWARE COST

Revit: $2,700/year (₦4,000,000)

Solution:
• Student versions (free)
• Small firm bundles
• Rent, not buy

2. COMPUTER REQUIREMENTS
Need powerful PC:
• i7 processor
• 16GB+ RAM
• Dedicated graphics
• Cost: ₦800,000+

3. TRAINING
Steep learning curve
3-6 months to proficiency

Solution:
• Online courses
• YouTube tutorials
• Practice projects

4. INDUSTRY ADOPTION
Many Nigerian firms still use 2D

But changing!
• Large projects require BIM
• Government mandates (coming)
• Competitive advantage

5. INTERNET/POWER
Large files need:

204
 • Fast internet (cloud)
• Stable power (UPS)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

THE FUTURE

BIM is becoming standard globally

Nigeria following:
• NIOB (Nigerian Institute of Building)
promoting BIM
• Major projects requiring BIM
• Universities teaching BIM
• Young professionals adopting

YOUR GENERATION:
Start learning BIM now!
Will be essential skill

EVALUATION
1. What is a Block in CAD? Explain three advantages of using blocks over drawing individual objects.

2. What is the difference between BLOCK and WBLOCK commands?

3. What are Attributes in CAD blocks? Give a practical example of how they are used.

4. Explain what an XREF (External Reference) is and why it's useful for team collaboration.

5. What is Annotative text in CAD? Solve this problem: If you have annotative text set to 3mm paper height, how
tall will it appear in your drawing at scale 1:100?

6. Compare Traditional CAD and BIM. List four key differences.

7. What does "Clash Detection" mean in BIM? Why is it important?

8. Name three BIM software programs and identify which discipline each is best suited for.

ASSIGNMENT
Part 1: Block Creation Exercise
1. If you have access to CAD software:

205
Create THREE blocks for architectural use: a) Door Block (900mm single door with swing) b)
Window Block (1200mm sliding window) c) WC Block (toilet with cistern and bowl)
For each block:
 Draw accurately
 Set appropriate base point
 Save with descriptive name
 Test by inserting multiple times
Save your work as: YourName_Blocks.dwg
If no computer access:
 Draw the three symbols on paper
 Indicate the base point (insertion point) for each
 Label clearly
Part 2: Block Library Planning
2. Plan a complete Block Library for a small architectural firm:
Create a folder structure showing:
CAD_BLOCKS/
├─ Architectural/
│ ├─ Doors/
│ ├─ Windows/
│ ├─ Fixtures/
│ └─ Furniture/
├─ Electrical/
└─ Plumbing/

Under each category, list minimum 5 blocks needed with:

 Block name
 Description
 Typical size
 Where used
Example:
Block: DOOR_SINGLE_900
Description: Single leaf door, 900mm wide
Size: 900mm × 50mm
Use: Interior rooms, bathrooms

Part 3: BIM Research

3. Research one BIM software (Revit, ArchiCAD, or Tekla):

206
Write a report (1-2 pages) covering:
 Software name and company
 Primary use (architectural/structural/MEP)
 Key features (minimum 5)
 System requirements (computer specs needed)
 Cost (subscription or perpetual license)
 Learning resources available
 Adoption in Nigeria (if you can find info)
 Would you recommend it? Why?
Part 4: Comparison Table
4. Create a detailed comparison table between:
 Manual Drawing
 2D CAD (AutoCAD)
 BIM (Revit)
Compare on these criteria:
 Initial cost
 Learning time
 Speed of production
 Ease of editing
 Collaboration ability
 File storage
 3D capability
 Quantity takeoff
 Industry adoption
 Future prospects
Use this format:
┌──────────────┬────────┬────────┬────────┐
│ CRITERIA │ MANUAL │ CAD │ BIM │
├──────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤
│ Initial cost │ Low │ Medium │ High │
│ │₦50,000 │₦500,000│₦1.5M │
└──────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┘

Part 5: Future Technology Essay

5. Write a short essay (1 page) titled:
"How will CAD and BIM change the Nigerian construction industry in the next 10 years?"
Consider:

207
 Current state of adoption
 Benefits for Nigerian context
 Challenges specific to Nigeria
 Role of young professionals
 Your predictions
 How you will prepare yourself

208
WEEK 11: REVISION AND EXAMINATION PREPARATION
11.1 COMPREHENSIVE TERM REVIEW
This week focuses on consolidating all knowledge from Weeks 1-10.

TOPIC-BY-TOPIC REVISION GUIDE

Diagram 130: Term Overview Map
SECOND TERM JSS2 TECHNICAL DRAWING

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ COMPUTER & CAD FUNDAMENTALS │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Week 1: Computer Hardware │
│ • Input devices (keyboard, mouse, scanner) │
│ • Output devices (monitor, printer, plotter) │
│ • Storage devices (HDD, SSD, USB, cloud) │
│ • Processing unit (CPU, RAM, motherboard) │
│ │
│ Week 1-2: CAD Introduction │
│ • Definition & advantages │
│ • CAD software types │
│ • Applications in various fields │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Week 2: Arches │
│ • Arch terminology (keystone, voussoir, etc.) │
│ • Arch types (semicircular, pointed, etc.) │
│ • Structural function │
│ • Drawing arches │
│ │
│ Week 3: Roofs │
│ • Roof types (gable, hip, flat, etc.) │
│ • Roof terminology (ridge, rafter, purlin) │
│ • Roof pitch calculation │
│ • Truss types (King Post, Queen Post, etc.) │
│ • Drawing trusses with labels │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ SYMBOLS & CONVENTIONS │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Week 4: Material & Symbol Representation │

209
│ • Material symbols (concrete, wood, steel, etc.)│
│ • Plumbing symbols (WC, basin, bath, etc.) │
│ • Electrical symbols (lights, switches, etc.) │
│ • Mechanical symbols (AC, fans, etc.) │
│ • When and how to use each │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Week 6: Blueprint Reading & Services │
│ • Blueprint history and meaning │
│ • Reading drawings (architect, QS, etc.) │
│ • Reproduction services business │
│ • Merchandising opportunities │
│ │
│ Week 8: Construction Applications │
│ • How different professionals use drawings │
│ • Architect's use │
│ • Quantity Surveyor's use (take-off) │
│ • Contractor's use (site work) │
│ • Electrician's use │
│ • Plumber's use │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ CAD PRACTICAL SKILLS │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Week 9: Basic CAD │
│ • CAD interface (menu, toolbar, canvas, etc.) │
│ • Drawing commands (line, circle, arc, etc.) │
│ • Modify commands (trim, offset, copy, etc.) │
│ • Layer management │
│ • Drawing workflow │
│ │
│ Week 10: Advanced CAD │
│ • Blocks and attributes │
│ • External references (XREF) │
│ • Annotative scaling │
│ • BIM introduction │
│ • CAD vs BIM comparison │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

11.2 KEY CONCEPTS SUMMARY

Diagram 131: Essential Knowledge Checklist

210
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

COMPUTER HARDWARE & CAD

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Can name and explain 5 input devices

☐ Can name and explain 5 output devices
☐ Understand difference between HDD and SSD
☐ Know what RAM does
☐ Can explain what a plotter is
☐ Know what CAD stands for
☐ Can list 5 advantages of CAD over manual drawing
☐ Can name 3 CAD software programs
☐ Understand CAD applications in different fields

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ARCHES
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Can define: Keystone, Voussoir, Springer

☐ Can define: Intrados, Extrados, Soffit
☐ Can define: Span, Rise, Springing Line
☐ Can explain how arches work structurally
☐ Can draw and label 3 arch types:
• Semicircular (Roman)
• Pointed (Gothic)
• Segmental
☐ Know which cultures used which arch types
☐ Can construct semicircular arch with compass
☐ Can label all parts on arch drawing

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ROOFS
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Can name 5 roof types:

• Flat, Gable, Hip, Mansard, Shed
☐ Can define: Pitch, Span, Rise, Run
☐ Can calculate pitch from span and rise
☐ Know pitch formula: Rise ÷ Run
☐ Can name all parts of a roof:
• Ridge, Rafter, Purlin, Tie Beam
• Wall Plate, King Post, Strut
☐ Can draw King Post Truss with labels
☐ Can draw Queen Post Truss with labels

211
☐ Know which members are in:
• Compression (C)
• Tension (T)
☐ Understand advantages of different roof types

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SYMBOLS & CONVENTIONS

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

MATERIAL SYMBOLS (Sections):

☐ Can draw hatching for:
• Concrete (triangles + dots)
• Wood (flowing grain lines)
• Steel (evenly spaced 45° lines)
• Brickwork (45° lines with breaks)
• Earth (random dots and lines)
• Hardcore (interlocking triangles)
• Glass (thin widely-spaced lines)
• Sand (fine dots)

PLUMBING SYMBOLS (Plans):

☐ Can draw:
• Water Closet (WC)
• Wash Hand Basin (WHB)
• Bath Tub
• Shower
• Kitchen Sink
• Floor Drain

ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS (Plans):

☐ Can draw:
• Ceiling Light (⊗ )
• Wall Light
• Switch (S)
• Two-way Switch (S₂)
• Socket Outlet (⊐ )
• Ceiling Fan
• Distribution Board
☐ Know how to show switch-to-light connection

MECHANICAL SYMBOLS:
☐ Can draw:
• Air Conditioning Unit
• Extractor Fan
• Radiator

212
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BLUEPRINT READING
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Know what "blueprint" means historically

☐ Know modern prints are black on white
☐ Can explain what plotters do
☐ Know how to read a title block
☐ Understand drawing scales (1:50, 1:100, etc.)
☐ Can identify information different professionals need:
• Architect: Design, aesthetics, function
• QS: Quantities, materials, costs
• Contractor: Construction sequence
• Electrician: Circuit layouts
• Plumber: Pipe routes, fixtures

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

QUANTITY SURVEYING BASICS

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Know what "taking off" means

☐ Can calculate wall area from plan and section
☐ Can deduct openings (doors, windows)
☐ Can calculate number of blocks needed
☐ Understand the concept of Bill of Quantities (BOQ)
☐ Know to add wastage percentage (5-10%)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

CAD INTERFACE
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Can identify CAD interface parts:

• Menu bar
• Ribbon/Toolbar
• Drawing area/Canvas
• Command line
• Status bar
• Layers panel
• Properties panel
☐ Understand coordinate system (0,0 origin)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

213
CAD DRAWING COMMANDS
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Know these commands and shortcuts:

• LINE (L)
• CIRCLE (C)
• ARC (A)
• RECTANGLE (REC)
• POLYGON (POL)
• ELLIPSE (EL)
• POLYLINE (PL)
• HATCH (H)
• TEXT (T) / MTEXT (MT)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

CAD MODIFY COMMANDS

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Know these commands and shortcuts:

• MOVE (M)
• COPY (CO)
• ROTATE (RO)
• SCALE (SC)
• TRIM (TR) ★ Very important!
• EXTEND (EX)
• OFFSET (O) ★ Very important!
• MIRROR (MI)
• ARRAY (AR)
• FILLET (F)
• CHAMFER (CHA)
• ERASE (E)
• EXPLODE (X)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

CAD LAYERS
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Understand what layers are (transparent sheets)

☐ Know why layers are important:
• Organization
• Visibility control
• Color coding
• Editing control
• Printing control
☐ Can create layers with proper names

214
☐ Know layer properties:
• Name
• Color
• Linetype
• On/Off
• Lock/Unlock
☐ Understand layer naming conventions:
• A- = Architectural
• E- = Electrical
• P- = Plumbing

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ADVANCED CAD
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BLOCKS:
☐ Know what blocks are (reusable groups)
☐ Understand advantages:
• Speed
• Consistency
• Easy editing (edit once, all update)
• Smaller file size
☐ Know difference between BLOCK and WBLOCK
☐ Know common block examples (doors, furniture, etc.)

ATTRIBUTES:
☐ Know attributes add data to blocks
☐ Understand use for automatic schedules

XREF:
☐ Know XREF = External Reference
☐ Understand it links (not copies) drawings
☐ Know advantages for team collaboration
☐ Know XREFs auto-update when source changes

BIM:
☐ Know BIM = Building Information Modeling
☐ Understand BIM objects are "intelligent"
☐ Know key advantages:
• Single source of truth
• Automatic schedules
• Clash detection
• Quantity takeoff
• 4D (time) and 5D (cost)
☐ Can name BIM software (Revit, ArchiCAD, etc.)
☐ Understand difference between CAD and BIM

215
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

MANUAL vs CAD
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Can compare manual drawing and CAD on:

• Startup cost
• Speed
• Accuracy
• Editing ease
• Storage
• Sharing
• Collaboration
• Long-term cost
☐ Know CAD advantages outweigh disadvantages
☐ Understand manual skills still important for fundamentals

11.3 PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Diagram 132: Exam-Style Questions
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SECTION A: MULTIPLE CHOICE (40 Questions)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

COMPUTER HARDWARE & CAD (Questions 1-8)

1. Which of the following is an input device?

A. Monitor
B. Speaker
C. Scanner ✓
D. Projector

2. CAD stands for:

A. Computer Automatic Design
B. Computer-Aided Design ✓
C. Computer Architecture Drawing
D. Creative Art Design

3. Which storage device has the fastest data access?

A. HDD
B. SSD ✓
C. CD-ROM
D. Floppy disk

4. The main advantage of CAD over manual drawing is:

216
 A. Cheaper startup cost
B. Easier to learn
C. Faster editing ✓
D. No electricity needed

5. A plotter is used for:

A. Scanning drawings
B. Printing large-format drawings ✓
C. Storing drawings
D. Editing drawings

6. RAM stands for:

A. Read Access Memory
B. Random Access Memory ✓
C. Rapid Application Memory
D. Remote Access Module

7. Which CAD software is commonly used for architecture?

A. MATLAB
B. AutoCAD ✓
C. Photoshop
D. Excel

8. The "brain" of the computer is the:

A. Monitor
B. Hard drive
C. CPU ✓
D. RAM

ARCHES (Questions 9-14)

9. The topmost central stone of an arch is called:

A. Springer
B. Voussoir
C. Keystone ✓
D. Crown

10. The inner curve of an arch is called:

A. Extrados
B. Intrados ✓
C. Soffit
D. Haunch

11. Which arch type was used in Roman architecture?

A. Pointed arch
B. Semicircular arch ✓
C. Tudor arch
D. Ogee arch

217
12. The horizontal distance across an arch is the:
A. Rise
B. Run
C. Span ✓
D. Pitch

13. Arches work by converting vertical loads to:

A. Upward thrust
B. Horizontal thrust ✓
C. Circular motion
D. No change in direction

14. Gothic arches are characterized by:

A. Semicircular shape
B. Flat top
C. Pointed shape ✓
D. Horseshoe shape

ROOFS (Questions 15-22)

15. The sloping member of a roof is called:

A. Purlin
B. Rafter ✓
C. Ridge
D. Joist

16. Roof pitch is calculated as:

A. Span ÷ Rise
B. Run ÷ Rise
C. Rise ÷ Run ✓
D. Rise × Span

17. A roof with four sloping sides is a:

A. Gable roof
B. Hip roof ✓
C. Flat roof
D. Shed roof

18. In a King Post Truss, the king post is in:

A. Tension
B. Compression ✓
C. Neither
D. Both

19. The horizontal member at the top of a roof is:

A. Wall plate
B. Tie beam

218
 C. Ridge ✓
D. Purlin

20. Which roof type is simplest to construct?

A. Mansard
B. Hip
C. Gable ✓
D. Gambrel

21. The tie beam in a truss is in:

A. Compression
B. Tension ✓
C. Shear
D. Torsion

22. A roof with two different slopes on each side is:

A. Gable
B. Hip
C. Mansard ✓
D. Flat

SYMBOLS (Questions 23-30)

23. In section, concrete is shown with:

A. Horizontal lines
B. Triangles and dots ✓
C. Wavy lines
D. Solid black

24. The symbol ⊗ represents:

A. Socket outlet
B. Ceiling light ✓
C. Floor drain
D. Window

25. In plan, a WC is shown as:

A. Circle only
B. Rectangle only
C. Cistern and bowl ✓
D. Letter "W"

26. A two-way switch is labeled:

A. S
B. S₂ ✓
C. 2S
D. SW

27. Wood in section is shown with:

219
 A. Evenly spaced 45° lines
B. Flowing grain lines ✓
C. Dots
D. Solid fill

28. The symbol ║⊐ represents:

A. Light switch
B. Socket outlet ✓
C. Door
D. Window

29. Steel in section is shown with:

A. Random dots
B. Triangles
C. Evenly spaced thin lines at 45° ✓
D. Wavy lines

30. A dotted line on a floor plan between S and ⊗ shows:

A. Hidden line
B. Control connection ✓
C. Water pipe
D. Section line

BLUEPRINT & PROFESSIONALS (Questions 31-35)

31. Traditionally, blueprints had:

A. Black lines on white paper
B. White lines on blue paper ✓
C. Blue lines on white paper
D. Red lines on blue paper

32. A Quantity Surveyor uses drawings to:

A. Design buildings
B. Calculate material quantities ✓
C. Install electrical systems
D. Construct foundations

33. The process of measuring quantities from drawings is:

A. Scaling
B. Taking off ✓
C. Plotting
D. Drafting

34. Which professional needs to know fixture locations?

A. Architect
B. Structural engineer
C. Plumber ✓
D. Quantity surveyor

220
35. Modern large-format drawings are printed using:
A. Laser printer
B. Inkjet printer
C. Plotter ✓
D. Photocopier

CAD COMMANDS (Questions 36-40)

36. The shortcut for LINE command is:

A. LI
B. L ✓
C. LN
D. LINE

37. Which command creates parallel lines?

A. COPY
B. ARRAY
C. OFFSET ✓
D. MIRROR

38. To cut a line at intersection, use:

A. TRIM ✓
B. EXTEND
C. BREAK
D. FILLET

39. Layers in CAD are used for:

A. 3D modeling
B. Color printing
C. Organization and control ✓
D. File compression

40. A block in CAD is:

A. A solid 3D object
B. A locked layer
C. A group of objects saved as one unit ✓
D. A command shortcut

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

1.C 2.B 3.B 4.C 5.B 6.B 7.B 8.C

9.C 10.B 11.B 12.C 13.B 14.C 15.B 16.C
17.B 18.B 19.C 20.C 21.B 22.C 23.B 24.B

221
25.C 26.B 27.B 28.B 29.C 30.B 31.B 32.B
33.B 34.C 35.C 36.B 37.C 38.A 39.C 40.C

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SECTION B: THEORY (Answer 5 out of 7)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

QUESTION 1 (Arches)

a) Define the following arch terms:

i) Keystone (2 marks)
ii) Voussoir (2 marks)
iii) Intrados (2 marks)

b) Explain how arches work structurally. (4 marks)

c) Name TWO types of arches used in:

i) Roman architecture (2 marks)
ii) Gothic architecture (2 marks)

Total: 14 marks

QUESTION 2 (Roofs)

a) Define the following roof terms:

i) Pitch (2 marks)
ii) Span (2 marks)
iii) Rise (2 marks)

b) A building has:
• Span = 8 metres
• Rise = 2.5 metres

Calculate:
i) The run (2 marks)
ii) The pitch (express as ratio) (3 marks)

c) List THREE members found in a King Post Truss. (3 marks)

Total: 14 marks

QUESTION 3 (Symbols)

a) Draw the sectional symbol (hatching pattern) for:

222
 i) Concrete (2 marks)
ii) Wood (2 marks)
iii) Steel (2 marks)
iv) Brickwork (2 marks)

b) Draw the floor plan symbol for:

i) Ceiling light (1 mark)
ii) One-way switch (1 mark)
iii) Socket outlet (2 marks)
iv) Water closet (WC) (2 marks)

Total: 14 marks

QUESTION 4 (CAD)

a) What does CAD stand for? (1 mark)

b) List FIVE advantages of CAD over manual drawing. (5 marks)

c) Name THREE popular CAD software programs. (3 marks)

d) Explain what a "Layer" is in CAD and give TWO reasons

why layers are important. (5 marks)

Total: 14 marks

QUESTION 5 (Professionals)

a) Explain how a Quantity Surveyor uses building drawings

differently from an Architect. (4 marks)

b) Describe the process a contractor follows to set out

a building on site using floor plans. (6 marks)

c) What specific information does an electrician extract

from a floor plan? Give FOUR examples. (4 marks)

Total: 14 marks

QUESTION 6 (Blueprint Services)

a) What is a "blueprint" and why are technical drawings

still called blueprints today? (4 marks)

b) List FIVE equipment/items needed to start a blueprint

223
 reproduction service. (5 marks)

c) Describe THREE challenges of running a blueprint

business in Nigeria and suggest solutions. (5 marks)

Total: 14 marks

QUESTION 7 (Advanced CAD)

a) What is a "Block" in CAD? Explain THREE advantages

of using blocks. (6 marks)

b) What does XREF stand for? Explain how XREFs help

with team collaboration. (4 marks)

c) What is BIM? Give TWO differences between traditional

CAD and BIM. (4 marks)

Total: 14 marks

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SECTION C: PRACTICAL DRAWING (Compulsory)

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

QUESTION 8 (30 marks)

Draw a simple BATHROOM FLOOR PLAN with the following

specifications:

Dimensions: 2.5m × 2.0m

Scale: 1:50
Wall thickness: 225mm

Include:
• Walls (using proper line weight)
• One door (900mm with swing) - 5 marks
• Water Closet (WC) with proper symbol - 5 marks
• Wash Hand Basin (WHB) with proper symbol - 5 marks
• Bath tub (1700mm) with proper symbol - 5 marks
• One ceiling light with switch - 3 marks
• Floor drain - 2 marks

Add:
• Overall dimensions - 2 marks
• Title: "BATHROOM FLOOR PLAN" - 1 mark

224
• Scale notation: "SCALE 1:50" - 1 mark
• Your name and date - 1 mark

Use proper drawing techniques:

• Neat work
• Correct symbols
• Appropriate line weights
• Good lettering

Total: 30 marks

QUESTION 9 (20 marks)

Draw a KING POST TRUSS with the following specifications:

Span: 8m (draw at scale 1:100 = 80mm on paper)

Rise: 2.5m (draw at 25mm on paper)

Label ALL members:

• Ridge
• Rafters (both sides)
• King Post
• Struts (both sides)
• Tie Beam
• Wall Plates

Indicate forces:
• Mark compression members with (C)
• Mark tension members with (T)

Add dimensions for:

• Total span
• Rise height

Include:
• Title block
• Scale notation
• Your name

Total: 20 marks

11.4 STUDY TECHNIQUES

Diagram 133: Effective Revision Strategies

225
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

STUDY PLAN - 7 DAYS TO EXAM

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

DAY 1: HARDWARE & CAD BASICS

────────────────────────────────
Morning (2 hours):
• Review computer hardware
• List all input/output devices
• Practice definitions

Afternoon (2 hours):
• Review CAD advantages
• Study CAD software types
• Make flashcards

Practice:
• Draw and label 5 input devices
• Draw and label 5 output devices
• Write 10 advantages of CAD

DAY 2: ARCHES
────────────────────────────────
Morning (2 hours):
• Review all arch terminology
• Study arch types
• Understand structural function

Afternoon (2 hours):
• Practice drawing arches
• Label all parts
• Make comparison table of arch types

Practice:
• Draw 3 arch types with labels
• Write definitions from memory
• Explain how arches work

DAY 3: ROOFS
────────────────────────────────
Morning (2 hours):
• Review roof types
• Study roof terminology
• Practice pitch calculations

Afternoon (2 hours):

226
• Draw King Post Truss
• Draw Queen Post Truss
• Label all members
• Mark forces (C/T)

Practice:
• 5 pitch calculation problems
• Draw trusses from memory
• List all roof members

DAY 4: SYMBOLS
────────────────────────────────
Morning (2 hours):
• Practice material symbols
• Draw all hatching patterns
• Material symbols quiz

Afternoon (2 hours):
• Practice floor plan symbols
• Plumbing symbols (WC, Basin, etc.)
• Electrical symbols (Lights, Switches)

Practice:
• Draw 10 material symbols
• Draw 10 plumbing symbols
• Draw 10 electrical symbols
• Do from MEMORY!

DAY 5: PROFESSIONALS & BLUEPRINT

────────────────────────────────
Morning (2 hours):
• Review how each professional uses drawings
• Study QS quantity takeoff process
• Blueprint reading techniques

Afternoon (2 hours):
• Practice quantity calculations
• Study blueprint service business
• Review construction applications

Practice:
• Calculate quantities for sample building
• Explain each professional's role
• Draw simple site set-out

DAY 6: CAD COMMANDS & LAYERS

227
────────────────────────────────
Morning (2 hours):
• Review all drawing commands
• Study modify commands
• Practice command shortcuts

Afternoon (2 hours):
• Layer management
• Block concepts
• XREF basics

Practice:
• Make command shortcut list
• Design layer structure for project
• Explain blocks and XREFs

DAY 7: PRACTICE & REVIEW

────────────────────────────────
Morning (2 hours):
• Take practice test (multiple choice)
• Time yourself
• Mark and review mistakes

Afternoon (2 hours):
• Practice drawing questions
• Bathroom floor plan
• King Post Truss
• Timed practice

Evening (1 hour):
• Quick review of weak areas
• Read through notes
• Get materials ready
• Early to bed!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

MEMORY TECHNIQUES
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

1. ACRONYMS
─────────
Arch parts (bottom to top):
"Some Intruders Have Key Extrados"
Springer - Intrados - Haunch - Keystone - Extrados

2. MNEMONICS

228
 ──────────
Drawing commands:
"Lazy Cats Always Rest Peacefully"
Line - Circle - Arc - Rectangle - Polyline

3. VISUAL MEMORY
─────────────
Draw diagrams repeatedly
Label from memory
Color code different parts

4. TEACH SOMEONE
──────────────
Explain concepts to friend/parent
If you can teach it, you know it!

5. PRACTICE TESTS
──────────────
Take multiple practice tests
Time yourself
Simulate exam conditions

6. FLASHCARDS
──────────
Front: Term/Question
Back: Definition/Answer

Example:
Front: "What is a Keystone?"
Back: "The topmost central voussoir
that locks the arch in place"

7. STUDY GROUPS
────────────
Study with classmates
Quiz each other
Share notes
Explain concepts to each other

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

EXAM DAY TIPS

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

BEFORE EXAM:
✓ Good night's sleep (8 hours)
✓ Healthy breakfast
✓ Arrive 30 minutes early

229
✓ Bring all materials:
• Pencils (2H, HB, 2B)
• Eraser
• Ruler
• Set squares
• Compass
• Protractor
• Calculator
• Sharpener

DURING EXAM:
✓ Read instructions carefully
✓ Read ALL questions first
✓ Answer easiest questions first
✓ Manage your time:
• Multiple choice: 30 minutes
• Theory: 45 minutes
• Drawing: 45 minutes
✓ Check your work
✓ Don't leave blanks - attempt everything!

DRAWING TIPS:
✓ Use 2H for construction lines (light)
✓ Use HB for final lines (dark)
✓ Draw faintly first, then darken
✓ Use instruments for all lines
✓ Label clearly and neatly
✓ Add title block
✓ Check dimensions

THEORY TIPS:
✓ Answer the question asked
✓ Use technical terminology
✓ Be specific - not vague
✓ Show calculations
✓ Draw diagrams if helpful
✓ Write neatly

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

✗ Not reading questions carefully

✗ Forgetting to label drawings
✗ Missing title blocks
✗ Wrong scale usage
✗ Incorrect symbols

230
✗ Poor time management
✗ Messy work
✗ Not showing calculations
✗ Leaving questions blank
✗ Rushing through easy questions

11.5 REVISION EXERCISES

Exercise Set 1: Quick Fire Questions
Answer these in 30 seconds each:

1. What does RAM stand for?

2. Name 3 input devices
3. What is the keystone of an arch?
4. Formula for roof pitch?
5. Symbol for ceiling light?
6. What is a plotter?
7. Concrete sectional symbol?
8. CAD command to trim?
9. What is a layer?
10. What does BIM stand for?

[Answers at end of document]

Exercise Set 2: Calculations

1. Building span = 12m, rise = 3.5m
Calculate: a) Run b) Pitch

2. Wall dimensions: 25m long × 3m high

Wall thickness: 225mm (9-inch blocks)
Openings: 3 doors (2m × 1m each)
4 windows (1.5m × 1.2m each)

Calculate:
a) Gross wall area
b) Opening area
c) Net wall area
d) Number of blocks (10 per m²)
e) Add 5% wastage

3. Roof area = 180m²

Aluminum sheets = 3m × 0.75m each
Calculate sheets needed (add 10% overlap)

[Show all working]

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Exercise Set 3: Drawing Practice
Practice these drawings (20 minutes each):

1. Draw semicircular arch (span 100mm)

Label: All parts

2. Draw King Post Truss (span 80mm, rise 25mm)

Label: All members
Show: Forces (C/T)

3. Draw bathroom floor plan (2m × 2.5m at 1:50)

Include: WC, Basin, Bath, Door, Light, Switch

4. Draw these symbols (actual size):

• 5 material symbols in section
• 5 plumbing symbols
• 5 electrical symbols

11.6 FINAL EXAM PREPARATION CHECKLIST

Diagram 134: Are You Ready?
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

KNOWLEDGE CHECKLIST
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

Rate yourself: 1 (weak) to 5 (strong)

TOPIC RATING
──────────────────────────────────── ──────
Computer Hardware [ ]
CAD Fundamentals [ ]
Arches (terminology, types, drawing) [ ]
Roofs (types, pitch, trusses) [ ]
Material Symbols [ ]
Plumbing Symbols [ ]
Electrical Symbols [ ]
Blueprint Reading [ ]
Professional Roles (QS, Contractor, etc) [ ]
Quantity Takeoff [ ]
CAD Interface [ ]
CAD Drawing Commands [ ]
CAD Modify Commands [ ]
CAD Layers [ ]
Blocks & XREFs [ ]
BIM Basics [ ]

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Focus extra study on topics rated 1-3!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

SKILLS CHECKLIST
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

Can you do these WITHOUT HELP?

☐ Draw and label a semicircular arch

☐ Draw and label a King Post Truss
☐ Draw bathroom floor plan with symbols
☐ Calculate roof pitch from dimensions
☐ Calculate wall quantities (blocks needed)
☐ Draw 10 material section symbols
☐ Draw 10 plumbing plan symbols
☐ Draw 10 electrical plan symbols
☐ List all CAD drawing commands with shortcuts
☐ List all CAD modify commands with shortcuts
☐ Explain layers and their importance
☐ Compare manual drawing vs CAD vs BIM
☐ Explain how different professionals use drawings

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

MATERIALS CHECKLIST
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

Do you have everything?

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS:
☐ Drawing board or A3/A2 paper
☐ T-square or parallel ruler
☐ Set squares (45° and 30°/60°)
☐ Compass (with pencil attachment)
☐ Divider
☐ Protractor
☐ Scale ruler (1:50, 1:100, etc.)
☐ French curves (optional)

DRAWING MATERIALS:
☐ Pencils: 2H (construction), HB (final), 2B (lettering)
☐ Eraser (soft plastic)
☐ Eraser shield
☐ Sharpener
☐ Masking tape

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☐ Drawing paper/sheets

OTHER:
☐ Calculator (for pitch/quantity calculations)
☐ Pen (for writing theory)
☐ Spare pencils (backup!)

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MENTAL PREPARATION
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

☐ Reviewed all notes

☐ Completed practice questions
☐ Practiced timed drawings
☐ Studied with classmates
☐ Asked teacher about unclear topics
☐ Got good sleep before exam
☐ Ate proper breakfast
☐ Feeling confident!

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

FINAL REMINDERS
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════

★ Read ALL questions before starting

★ Answer EASIEST questions first
★ Manage your TIME carefully
★ Use proper DRAWING TECHNIQUES
★ LABEL everything clearly
★ Add TITLE BLOCKS to all drawings
★ SHOW ALL CALCULATIONS
★ CHECK your work before submitting
★ Don't leave ANY question blank
★ BELIEVE in yourself - You've prepared well!

GOOD LUCK!

ANSWERS TO QUICK FIRE QUESTIONS

1. Random Access Memory
2. Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner (any 3 of: trackpad,
microphone, webcam, stylus, joystick)
3. The topmost central voussoir that locks the arch
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4. Pitch = Rise ÷ Run
5. ⊗ (Circle with X)
6. Large-format printer for technical drawings
7. Triangles and dots mixed (aggregate pattern)
8. TRIM (shortcut: TR)
9. Transparent organizational sheet for grouping objects
10. Building Information Modeling

EVALUATION
Final Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Can you confidently explain the difference between RAM and storage?

2. Can you draw and label five different arch types from memory?
3. Can you calculate roof pitch given span and rise?

4. Can you draw all material section symbols correctly?

5. Can you draw a complete bathroom floor plan with all correct symbols in 30 minutes?

6. Can you list ten CAD commands with their shortcuts and functions?

7. Can you explain what layers are and why they're the most important CAD feature?
8. Can you calculate how many blocks are needed for a wall given its dimensions?

9. Can you explain the difference between CAD and BIM?

10. Are you ready for the exam? Yes or No?

ASSIGNMENT
FINAL EXAM PREPARATION PORTFOLIO
Create a comprehensive study portfolio containing:
1. Summary Sheets (5 pages minimum)
 One page for each major topic
 Key definitions
 Important diagrams
 Formulas and calculations
 Common mistakes to avoid
2. Symbol Reference Sheet (1 page)

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  All material symbols
 All plumbing symbols
 All electrical symbols
 Drawn neatly and labeled
3. Practice Drawings (3 minimum)
 Semicircular arch with labels
 King Post Truss with labels
 Bathroom floor plan with symbols
4. Command Reference (1 page)
 List of 20 CAD commands
 Shortcuts
 Brief description of each
 When to use
5. Self-Made Practice Test
 Create 20 multiple choice questions
 Create 3 theory questions
 Create 2 drawing questions
 Include answer key
 Exchange with classmate and test each other
6. Reflection Essay (1 page) Write about:
 What you found most difficult this term
 What you enjoyed most
 How you've improved
 What you'll work on next term
 Your goals for using CAD in the future
Submit this portfolio the day before the exam for bonus marks!

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