Synapse: Overview
A synapse is a functional junction where a presynaptic neuron transmits a signal to
a postsynaptic cell (another neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell).
Presynaptic neuron: Sends the signal toward the synapse
Postsynaptic cell: Receives the signal and responds
Types of Neuronal Synapses (Based on Structure)
Axodendritic: Axon → dendrite (most common)
Axosomatic: Axon → cell body
Axoaxonic: Axon → axon
Synapses are vital for homeostasis, learning, memory, and are common targets for
drugs and neurological disorders.
Types of Synapses
1. Electrical Synapses
Neurons are connected by gap junctions
Ions pass directly between cells via connexons
Found in: Cardiac muscle, Visceral smooth muscle, Developing embryo, Some brain
regions
Advantages
Very fast transmission
Synchronization of activity (e.g., heart contraction)
2. Chemical Synapses
Most common type in the nervous system
Presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes are separated by a synaptic cleft (20–50
nm)
Sequence of Events in Chemical Synaptic Transmission
Action potential reaches synaptic end bulb
Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open
Ca²⁺ influx triggers exocytosis of neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on postsynaptic membrane
Ion channels open → postsynaptic potential forms
If threshold is reached → action potential generated
Synaptic delay: ~0.5 ms (slower than electrical synapse)
Transmission is one-way only
Postsynaptic Potentials
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
Caused by depolarization
Usually due to Na⁺ entry
Brings membrane closer to threshold
Makes neuron more excitable
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
Caused by hyperpolarization
Due to: Cl⁻ entry or K⁺ exit
Moves membrane away from threshold
Inhibits action potential generation
Neurotransmitter Receptors
1. Ionotropic Receptors
Neurotransmitter binding site and ion channel are in the same protein
Fast response
Direct opening of ion channels
Examples:
Cation channels (Na⁺, Ca²⁺) → EPSP
Chloride channels (Cl⁻) → IPSP
2. Metabotropic Receptors
Binding site and ion channel are separate
Linked by G-proteins
Slower but longer-lasting effects
Often open K⁺ channels → IPSP
Same Neurotransmitter, Different Effects
The effect depends on the receptor, not the neurotransmitter itself.
Example: Acetylcholine (ACh)
Ionotropic receptor → EPSP
Metabotropic receptor → IPSP
Removal of Neurotransmitter
Essential to stop continuous stimulation.
Occurs by:
Diffusion
Enzymatic degradation
Example: acetylcholinesterase breaks down ACh
Reuptake into neuron or neuroglia via transporters
Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials
A neuron may receive input from 1,000–10,000 synapses.
Types of Summation
1. Spatial Summation
Multiple presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitter at the same time
Occurs at different membrane locations
2. Temporal Summation
Single presynaptic neuron fires repeatedly and rapidly
Occurs at the same location
Final Outcome in Postsynaptic Neuron
EPSP only:
Excitation < threshold
No action potential
Action potential(s)
Excitation ≥ threshold
Nerve impulse generated
IPSP
Inhibition dominates
No action potential possible