Spiritual self 


Religious attitudes
Beliefs
The spiritual self is the core of who we are.
 Practices
It is more permanent than the material self and the social
It involves the service and worship of God or the
self.
supernatural.
The spiritual self is subjective and the most intimate part of a
person. Objective Experience
Religion often places more focus on external elements such
It develops a level of spirituality, which is seen as humanity’s
as:
way of seeking and expressing the meaning and purpose of
life.  Houses of worship
 Books of scripture
It reflects the quality of relationships with:
 External rituals and observances
 God
 Oneself Organization
 Other people Religion is a structured, often rule-based system that governs
 Institutions the behavior of its members.
 All of God's creation
It is shaped by:
These relationships are marked by:
 Moral rules
 Respect  Laws
 Forgiveness  Doctrines
 Generous service  Specific codes and criteria
 Prayer
These create the organized structure around the religion’s
It shows a high level of Christian maturity and concern for specific belief system.
higher things like the Sacred or Divine.

Spirituality deepens through the strengthening of faith. Traditional Approach

 Religions are typically deeply rooted in tradition,
It leads to a deeper communion with the Divine, offering a ritual, creed, and doctrine.
direct and personal connection.  Religious institutions conservatively guard their
This spirituality is inclusive of all: practices and values.
 They often adhere rigidly to past teachings and the
 Faiths founder’s original interpretations.
 Social ideologies
 Political ideologies Exclusive
It helps individuals who are: Traditional religious beliefs, often based on strict
interpretations, can lead to an exclusive worldview.
 In spiritual, emotional, or physical distress
 In crisis or discomfort This worldview may isolate those who do not share the same
 Seeking significant life changes through self- beliefs.
awareness
Sometimes, this “in-group” mentality is used to justify the
Spirituality can be a healing process that leads to personal exclusion of minorities or people deemed unworthy of divine
development. favor.

Religion and spirituality are often mistaken as being the

same, but they are different.
Belief
Religion is fundamentally about faith — belief in something
Although they share similarities and have a relationship, through unconditional acceptance of its teachings.
there are clear differences between the two.
Followers are taught to:

Religion Have faith in God or scriptures as infallible and the ultimate

Religion is a personal set or an institutionalized system of: truth of reality.
Accept and surrender to the Divine as the path to ultimate A flexible and adaptive mindset toward core teachings of
salvation. wisdom traditions.

Spirituality: The understanding that spiritual growth is an evolutionary

process.
Spirituality refers to an experience of connection to
something larger than oneself. Spirituality welcomes change and the evolution of
consciousness.
It is about living everyday life with reverence and in a sacred
manner.
Inclusive
According to Christina Puchalski, MD (a leader in integrating Spirituality does not create distinctions or divisions.
spirituality into healthcare):
It promotes an inclusive approach.
"Spirituality is the aspect of humanity that refers to the way
It recognizes that pure spirit is a unifying force, and no one is
individuals seek and express meaning and purpose, and the
left out.
way they experience their connectedness to:
Everyone is part of the universal hologram, all gods and
 The moment
goddesses in disguise.
 Self
 Others From a spiritual perspective, no one has a monopoly on the
 Nature truth; all are welcome in God’s eyes.
 The significant or sacred."
Spiritual Experience
Spirituality values direct experience of the soul or divinity,
rather than only relying on faith.

Practices like meditation, yoga, silence, and contemplation

help make conscious contact with expanded states of
consciousness.

These practices validate teachings through personal

experience, allowing you to know something because you’ve
personally tasted the experience rather than simply accepting
it on faith alone.

The spirit and the soul

Subjective Experience The interconnection between the spirit and the soul is
Spirituality is an inward journey that focuses on a shift in important to understand, as they are often used
awareness rather than external activities. interchangeably but have distinct meanings.
It is more about inner understanding than outer worship.
Spirit (as described by L.
Formless Mercado, 1994):
Spirituality breaks free from the rigid structure sometimes In Hebrew, the spirit is called ruach, and in Greek, it is
found in traditional religion. pneuma, which means breath (especially the breath of life).
The spiritual aspirant understands that they are on a The spirit is described as:
"pathless path" of self-discovery.
 The disposition or habitual attitudes of a person.
They follow their own inner call to spirit, not external rules.  Man's supernatural power that comes from God.
 The part of us through which all life and power of
Evolutionary Approach God flow.
Spirituality embraces an evolutionary mentality.  The "life-giving part" of man (James 2:26).

This includes:
Soul: Ginahawa: The life force, associated with the
intestine or liver.
The soul, in Hebrew, is nephesh, and in Greek, it is psyche, Kalulwa: Associated with the brain, responsible for
originally meaning throat or neck. life, mind, and human initiative.
It refers to: The ancient Filipinos believed that souls could leave the body
Human life and the animating principle of human nature. even while still alive, escaping through the body’s openings
like the hands and feet.
In Hebrew tradition, the soul represents the totality of man,
not just a division between body, soul, and spirit. To protect the soul, they wore gold.

The distinction between the natural and supernatural is seen There was also an instruction from the elders:
in the soul and spirit: "Do not sleep hungry," as it might cause the soul to leave the
Soul (nephesh-psyche) refers to natural man. body and search for food, thus locking the soul in place.
Spirit is the ethical factor that adds a relationship
with God. The Soul According to the
Ethnolinguistic Groups of
Comparison of Soul and
the Philippines
Spirit:
Soul = Natural life of man.

Spirit = Ethical, supernatural aspect, connecting man with

Ifugao – ‘Linnawa’
God, enabling him to serve and participate in the The soul (linnawa) of a child floats in the heavens, waiting to
supernatural order. enter the human world.

Filipino Terminology: During sexual intercourse, the soul/spirit enters the female
through the male, resulting in pregnancy.
The Filipino word for spirit is "espirito" or "espiritu".
If a woman cannot conceive, shamans perform sacrifices to
In Visayan = "ginhawa" check compatibility between the couple. If they are
compatible, further sacrifices are made to enhance fertility.
Tagalog = "hininga"
The soul continues to exist in the world of ancestors and
Ilocano = "anges".
eventually becomes one of the callading (ancestral spirits).
The concept of the soul is familiar to Filipinos and represents
Callading are considered the benefactors of mankind.
a person’s emotional and moral nature, hiding their most
private thoughts and feelings. Some beliefs (from The Soul Book) state that the Ifugao
believe there are two souls:
In certain religious beliefs, the soul is considered the spiritual
part that continues after the body dies and is subject to One in the eyes.
future rewards or punishments. One in the breath.
Biblical View of the Soul: Illness is thought to be caused by the withdrawal of the soul
in the eyes, while death occurs when the soul withdraws
In the Bible, the soul is seen as the innermost aspect of a
from the breath.
person, signifying the spiritual principle in them.
ILLNESS = EYES
It is described as the breath of life that gives the body life.
DEATH = BREATH
Ancient Filipino Beliefs about the Soul:

According to historian Michael Charlestone Chua, the ancient

Filipinos believed that man had two parts:
Ibaloi
The external part (the body). The Ibaloi belief system holds that the afterlife is populated
The internal part, consisting of two elements: by ancestral spirits.
Animal sacrifices are performed to honor and assist the The soul of a living person is called kakambal (meaning twin
deceased. or double).

When a soul arrives in the afterlife with physical treasures, it The kakambal is believed to travel around at night, and
is welcomed with honor. encounters with it may cause nightmares (bangungut).

If a soul arrives empty-handed, it is scorned and unwelcome The kakambal becomes a kaluluwa after death.
in the afterlife. This feeling of rejection can cause the spirit to
bring evil, disease, and death to its relatives. Ilokano – ‘Kararua,
To prevent this, the relatives of the deceased make
donations of cash or animals.
Karkarma, Aniwaas, and
Araria’
Isneg – ‘Kaduwa’ The Ilokanos believe in a four-soul system.

The Isneg people believe that the dead exist in another world The kararua is the soul proper, which leaves only
called Aglalanawan. after death.
The karkarma can leave the body when frightened
In this world, the souls engage in earthly tasks such as or stolen, leading to insanity if it doesn’t return.
planting, harvesting, and communal living. The aniwaas visits familiar places during sleep, and
its absence can also cause insanity.
The kaduwa (soul) is believed to travel across a pond in a
The araria is the soul of the deceased that visits the
ferry piloted by the spirit Kutaw (a psychopomp).
living and can manipulate physical objects.
To ensure the soul’s safe passage, customary death rituals
are performed to please Kutaw, who facilitates the spirit's Ibanag – ‘Ikaruruwa’
entry into Aglalanawan.
The Ibanag distinguish between the body (baggi) and the soul
(ikaruruwa), which is considered a companion of the body.
Kankana-ey – ‘Ab-abiik’ Their belief system also involves the idea of the soul having
physical characteristics and the soul’s journey in the spirit
Ab-abiik refers to the spiritual self, as opposed to the
realm, including rituals to invite a lost soul back.
physical self (Awak).

Ab-abiik can also refer to inanimate objects like mountains, Mangyan – ‘Karaduwa’
trees, or rivers, which are believed to have spiritual
significance. The Hanunoo Mangyan people believe in multiple souls,
including the karaduwa tawu (human soul) and various
In some contexts, Ab-abiik can also mean inspiration.
animal souls like karaduwa manok (chicken soul). These souls
can leave the body during stressful or miraculous events, such
as sickness or dreams, and are believed to walk around in the
Bikol spirit realm.
It is believed that no one should miss dinner or go to bed
hungry, as this may cause their spirit to roam in search of Bisaya – ‘Dungan’
food.
The dungan is considered an ethereal soul that can be
If a pot of food is covered while the spirit is eating inside, the
captured by bad spirits and may be lost due to sickness or
person sleeping nearby will not wake up until the lid is lifted.
improper care. It grows proportionately with the body and
plays a role in willpower and spiritual competition. At death,
the dungan leaves the body and seeks another to inhabit.
Tagalog – ‘Kaluluwa and
Ilonggo – ‘Dungan’
Kakambal’
The Tagalog soul (kaluluwa) can leave the body involuntarily. Similar to the Bisaya, the Ilonggo people also believe in the
dungan, which may leave the body during sleep or distress
and can take visible forms. The dungan plays a crucial role in Creation and maintenance of social bonds and social control
the health and well-being of the individual, and if improperly
-Provides explanations for the unknown
treated, it withdraws from the body.
-Gives individuals a sense of control
Sulod – ‘Umalagad’
Functions of Religion
The Sulod people view death as a passage through a narrow
door. Their belief system involves three brother gods who 1. Stability and Cohesion
observe and guide the soul’s journey after death, with rituals Shared religion binds people together.
ensuring the soul's proper passage and a conversation with
Forms a balanced, cohesive moral community.
the newborn about their life span.
Protects individuals from anomie (loss of social norms),
Tagbanwa – ‘Kiyaraluwa’
alienation, and disruptive mass movements.
The Tagbanwa believe in one primary soul, the kiyaraluwa,
which is given to an infant at birth. The secondary souls are Shared religious experiences act as social cement for group
distributed in the hands, feet, and head and have specific unity and consensus.
roles in protection and health. The kiyaraluwa is crucial for
the child’s life and well-being. 2. Social Identity
Bukidnon – ‘Makatu’ and ‘Pipitu ha makatu’ Religion provides identity and social membership.
The Bukidnon people hold that the makatu (soul) exists
Special ceremonies like christening or baptism integrate
before birth and is breathed into the child by the god Miyaw-
individuals into the group.
Biyaw. They also believe in seven different souls with specific
behaviors and roles, with illness and death occurring if any Emphasizes the power of the group over the isolated
soul leaves the body. individual.
Bagobo – ‘Gimokud’ Strengthens national or communal loyalty, especially during
The Bagobo believe in two souls, the gimokud, one on the times of threat.
right hand, which is associated with life and health, and the
left hand, which is linked to illness and lethargy. After death, 3. Collective Conscience
these souls take on different forms, and the right-hand soul
Religion unites people around shared moral values (value
gives notice of death in the form of an insect.
consensus).
These diverse beliefs highlight the deep spiritual connections
Generates and maintains the collective conscience (shared
the different indigenous groups in the Philippines have with
sense of right and wrong).
the soul, death, and the afterlife, each with unique practices
to ensure the well-being and continuity of the soul after Society acts as a moral community, continually integrating
death. individuals into new groups with new norms and values.

The practice of religion Orderly social life depends on shared moral values.

Characteristics of Religion 4. Socialization and Social

Belief in anthropomorphic supernatural beings
(Anthropomorphic: having human characteristics)
Control
Religion promotes the society’s value system.
Focus on the sacred supernatural
Acts as a conservative force for social order and stability.
Presence of supernatural power or energy
Religious beliefs legitimize cultural norms (e.g., Ten
-Found in supernatural beings, physical beings, and objects Commandments).

-Some traditions consider geographic places spiritually sacred Through family, school, and church, religious teachings
socialize individuals.
Performance of ritual activities
Controls behavior to promote a good, orderly society.
Articulation of worldview and moral codes

-Shared through narratives and other forms

5. Meaning and Purpose 7. Rituals
Religion gives meaning to life’s uncertainties (death, disease, Means of sanctification (purification, supplication, and
disasters). thanksgiving) (Schmidt, et al., 2005).

Provides comfort in crises and strength to endure hardships. Expected ways of performing religious acts.

Helps maintain long-term societal stability. Examples:

Techniques of Religion 

Praying
Making the sign of the cross
The practice of religion involves the actions and behaviors  Joining religious processions
believers perform in accordance with religious requirements.  Practicing the Way of the Cross during Lent (for
These are the outward expressions of faith. Catholics)

1. Prayer 8. Sacred Objects

Communication with the Supernatural Being through speech Physical items connected to the Supernatural.
or thought.
Examples:
Simply a conversation with the Almighty.
 Bible
2. Divination  Rosary
 Prayer books
Elevating a person’s weak or imperfect state towards God.
 Crucifix
A striving to perfect one's imperfection (Bernardo, 2016).  Bread and wine sanctified during Holy Mass (symbol
of Jesus Christ's life)
3. Ceremony
A series of connected rituals performed at a specific time and 9. Taboo
place. Things or actions that must be avoided because they go
against the will of the Almighty.
Examples:

 Holy Mass common elements of



Marriage solemnization
Priest's ordination
religion
 Te Deum (thanksgiving ceremony) Animatism
Definition: Belief in a supernatural power that is not part of a
4. Sacrifice supernatural being.
An act of expressing reverence to God or spiritual powers.
Characteristics:
Examples:
 The power is impersonal and unseen.
Abstinence (not eating meat during Lent and Good Friday)  It can exist anywhere and everywhere.
 It is neutral — neither good nor evil — but can be
Fasting (one full meal and smaller meals during certain days)
dangerous if misused.

5. Reverence Example: Comparable to electricity or "the Force" from Star

A feeling of awe mixed with love and admiration toward the Wars.
Almighty or supernatural powers.
Animism
6. Power Duty Definition: Belief that natural objects are animated by
The obligation to please the Almighty through reverent spirits.
actions. Origin: From the Latin word anima meaning "soul."
Example: Following God’s Ten Commandments. Forms:
 Individual Spirits: Every rock, tree, cloud, etc., has its Tikbalang:
own unique spirit. Half-horse, half-human; plays tricks on humans, sometimes
Universal Spirit: Everything in nature shares a causing madness; associated with the full moon.
common spirit.
Manananggal:
Spirit Characteristics: Special type of aswang; separates upper body and flies with
bat-like wings to hunt.
Spirits have personalities, genders, and other human-like
traits. Kapre:
Giant tree dweller; smokes cigars; mischievous but not
Example: Belief in "Mother Nature" as a protective figure.
harmful; likes to trick or befriend humans.
Spirits can be:
Engkantos/Engkantadas:
 Benevolent (kind) Nature spirits or fairies; fallen angels; beautiful, fair-skinned
 Malevolent (harmful) beings living in large trees or rocks.
 Neutral
Nuno sa Punso:
Human Interaction: Dwarf-like creature living in anthills; punishes those who
disturb its home with curses or illnesses.
Spirits can interact with humans.

Humans must please or avoid angering them through their

actions. Rituals

Repetitive behaviors related to the supernatural.

Supernatural Creatures in
Types: religious, secular, life cycle (e.g., baptism, coming of
Philippine Folklore age), and pilgrimage.
Animatism
Examples:
Belief in an impersonal, unseen, and widespread supernatural
force. Harang: Visayan ritual offering for good harvest and health.

Neither good nor evil but powerful and dangerous if misused. Kanyaw: Cordillera thanksgiving ritual.

Animism Buklog: Subanen fiesta ritual honoring spirits and community

bonds.
Belief that natural objects (trees, rocks, rivers) are inhabited
by spirits.

Spirits may have distinct personalities and characteristics like Magic

gender.
In anthropology: rituals to control supernatural forces for
Spirits can be good, bad, or neutral and interact with humans. specific purposes (healing, protection, revenge).

Provides comfort, reduces stress, and explains the

unexplainable.
Famous Creatures in Exists in all cultures.
Philippine Folklore:
Aswang:
Witchcraft (Kulam)
Shapeshifters; human by day, monster by night; can turn into
animals like bats or dogs; steal corpses and replace them with Belief in an inborn psychic power to cause harm (illness,
banana trunks. misfortune, death).
Tiyanak: Often linked to sorcery; seen as evil when used antisocially.
Spirit of an unbaptized baby; returns as a vampire-like
creature seeking victims. Used as a way to explain misfortunes and strengthen
community unity.
What the Bible Says About Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft
Beliefs about Ritual Power
As predominantly Christian Filipinos, the Bible is our primary
guide. The Book of Deuteronomy clearly states: and Anting-anting
"Don't sacrifice your children in fires, practice fortune-telling, (Amulets)
use sorcery, interpret omens, engage in witchcraft, cast spells, Covar explains that:
act as mediums, or call forth spirits of the dead. Anyone who
Amulets (Anting-anting) are believed to carry spiritual power,
does these things is detestable to the Lord." (Deuteronomy
especially when rituals are performed correctly.
18:10-13)
Some Filipino Catholics believe in the power of the words of
These practices — magic, witchcraft, reliance on amulets, and
Christ and Catholic liturgy when used through these objects.
the like — are idolatrous because they place trust in
something other than God. This violates the First Holy Week is seen as the best time to empower or recharge
Commandment: anting-antings.
"I am the Lord your God... Worship no god but Me." However, true Christian faith teaches that power comes from
(Exodus 20:2-3) God alone, not from magical practices or objects.
Jesus Christ reinforced this through the "Great
Commandment of Love":

"Love the Lord your God with all your heart, soul, mind, and God’s Kagandahang-Loob
strength. Love your neighbor as yourself. No other Kagandahang-loob (kindness, generosity, goodness) perfectly
commandment is greater than these." (Mark 12:29-31) describes God's nature for Filipinos. It reflects:

Thus, Christians are called to avoid superstitious practices and Goodness rooted in the heart.
focus solely on loving and worshiping God.
Jesus Christ’s life, where His words and deeds expressed true
kagandahang-loob.

God’s saving actions are seen as acts of His kagandahang-loob

The Concept of Loob toward humanity.
In Filipino culture, loob (inner self or core) defines true
personhood and how a person relates to others. It describes
whether one has:
Loob and Prayer
Magandang loob / Mabuting loob – A person of goodwill
Prayer is the expression of the truth of the loob, our deepest
who promotes the well-being of others.
being, which is:
Masamang loob – A person of bad character who harms or
Created in God's image.
correlates negatively with others.
Meant to be in relationship with God.
Authentic behavior stems from the loob.
Christian prayer is:
Purification of Loob An act of listening and responding to God.
According to Mercado A personal communion with the Father through Christ, made
(1994): possible by the Holy Spirit.

A purified loob is achieved through prayer, sacrifices, and A way to restore our loob when we go astray (pagbabalik-
religious acts such as: loob, conversion).

Penitensiya (e.g., Good Friday practices of flagellation and Through prayer, we recognize our true selves and our need
crucifixion reenactment). for God.

These acts symbolize renewal and readiness to face life's

challenges.