Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

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Engineering Structures
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Experimental study on the shear behavior of cold-formed steel clamped thin

steel plate shear walls and screw connections
Yao Xinmei a, Zou Yuxuan d, Zhou Ziming a , Hou Shiqi a , Zhou Xuhong b,c, Shi Yu b,c,* ,
Xiang Yi e,f, Guan Yu a
a
College of Civil Engineering, Chang’an University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710061, China
b
Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area (Chongqing University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400045, China
c
School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
d
Shaanxi Railway Institute, Weinan, Shaanxi 714000, China
e
State Key Laboratory of Mountain Bridge and Tunnel Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China
f
School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this paper, the shear performance of cold-formed steel clamped thin steel plate shear wall (CFS-CTSPSW) was
Cold-formed steel experimentally investigated, utilizing clamped end columns to enhance the confinement of thin steel plates.
Thin steel plate shear wall Firstly, four self-tapping screw connection specimens were subjected to monotonic and cyclic loading. The results
Shear performance
indicated that cyclic loading caused progressive damage to the thin steel plates and reduced the load-bearing
Screw connection
Experimental research
capacity of the screw connections. Furthermore, quasi-static loading tests were conducted on four full-scale
CFS-CTSPSWs. The damage characteristics, hysteresis curves, skeleton curves, energy-dissipation capacity,
strength degradation, and stiffness degradation of the CFS-CTSPSWs were evaluated. The results demonstrated
that, compared with a pure steel frame, the clamped steel plate improved the integrity of the shear wall and
formed tensile bands under load action, thereby increasing the initial stiffness by 4.93 times, ultimate load-
bearing capacity by 1.75 times, and energy-dissipation performance by 70 %. The rigid strips resisted hori­
zontal loads along with the thin steel plates, thereby increasing the peak shear capacity by 45 %. However, the
rigid strips restricted the horizontal plastic deformation of the steel frame and decreased the ductility by 45 % of
the steel walls. Finally, the recommendations and comments on the design methodology of the CFS-CTSPSW s
were given.

1. Introduction screws. Additionally, various bracings like K-bracing [13,14], diagonal

bracing [15], and truss bracings [16] prove effective. Prior research
Cold - formed steel (CFS) structure systems present distinct advan­ shows that diagonal bracings and sheathing magnesium crystal boards
tages over traditional concrete buildings, including high construction (MCBs) influence the hysteretic behavior of CFS-SWs. Xiong et al. [17]
efficiency, good construction quality, excellent heat preservation and found MCBs improved wall deformation and load-bearing capacity
insulation performance, low post-maintenance costs, environmental better than gypsum boards, while diagonal bracing had little impact on
friendliness, and sustainability [1–4]. CFS shear walls (CFS-SWs) are MCB-sheathed walls.
pivotal lateral force-resisting members in CFS structures. Their perfor­ The cavity effect in CFS composite walls has drawn scholars’ atten­
mance significantly impacts the overall structural integrity, making tion globally. Incorporating filling materials, such as high - strength
research on high load-bearing capacity shear walls crucial for CFS sys­ foam concrete (HFC) and lightweight foam concrete (LFC), has been
tem development [5]. explored [18–20]. Zuo et al. [21] analyzed CFS-SWs filled with HFC and
Enhancing the shear capacity of CFS-SWs can be achieved by con­ validated results with MATLAB. Mydin [22] studied lightweight steel
necting diverse wall panel materials, such as straw panels [6–8], OSB -foam concrete composite walls with LFC, highlighting its superior
[9], and gypsum panels [10–12], to CFS frames using self tapping thermal and mechanical properties. These filling materials reduce the

* Correspondence to: College of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400045, [Link].
E-mail address: shiyucivil@[Link] (S. Yu).

[Link]
Received 14 February 2025; Received in revised form 10 April 2025; Accepted 11 May 2025
Available online 19 May 2025
0141-0296/© 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

cavity effect and enhance CFS - SW performance, demonstrating ad­ parameters, as detailed in Table 1. The specimens had overall di­
vancements in CFS composite wall development for various construction mensions of 2400 (height) × 1210 (width) mm, resulting in a 2:1 aspect
applications. ratio.
Recent studies have explored corrugated steel sheets as sheathing in The construction details of specimens CFS-CTSPSW-1 and − 2 are
CFS-SW systems. Liu et al. [23] found that CFS-SWs with 5 mm rib identical to those shown in Fig. 1. The columns of these specimens uti­
height corrugated panels had enhanced energy capacity. Deng et al. [24] lized double built-up CFS capped sections (Fig. 2a) with a single cap
investigated double corrugated steel plate SWs through experiments and member having dimensions of Ω 120 × 70 × 40 × 2.5 mm (Fig. 2b). The
finite element modeling. Although corrugated steel plates improve shear two limbs of the cap were built up and clamped to thin steel plates using
performance, their low ductility led Yu et al. [25] to develop an energy ST5.5 hexagonal self-tapping screws placed along the midpoint of the
dissipating X-supported CFS-SW. Scholars [26–28] have delved into cap flange, with a screw spacing of 50 mm. The top and bottom beam
non-stiffened rib thin steel plate SWs. Guo et al. [29] confirmed that the sections were double-built-up CFS L-shaped rolled-edge members
deformation capacity and energy-dissipation capacity of thin steel plate (Fig. 2c) with dimensions of L 103 × 70 × 12 × 2.5 mm (Fig. 2d). The L-
SWs possess high research value. Nie et al. [30] showed that non opened shaped beams and embedded steel plates were connected using two
thin steel plate SWs had better seismic performance. Egorova et al. [31] rows of ST5.5 screws along the horizontal direction at a screw spacing of
conducted tests on ring-shaped steel-plate SWs that utilized a circular 50 mm and vertical spacing of 38 mm. The joint between the capped
ring deformed into an ellipse to limit in-plane buckling. column and the L-shaped beam was connected using two
Briere et al. [32] firstly proposed a thin steel plate SW consisting of 90 × 90 × 2.5 mm (length × width × thickness) connection plates and
an embedded thin steel plate and four-sided CFS edge members, and four M12 high-strength bolts, as shown in Fig. 1b. Eight hold-downs
showed that the damage characteristics of the SW were mainly the were arranged at each corner of the shear wall, as shown in Fig. 1c.
buckling of the embedded steel plate to form a tensile zone and the end Each hold-down was connected to the side plate of the cap-end columns
columns buckled locally because of the embedded reinforcing effect of using 22 M8 high-strength bolts.
the edge members on the steel plate. Moreover, the formation of the thin Specimen CFS-CTSPSW-3 was a pure frame after the removal of the
steel plate tension field was related to the bending behavior of CFS thin steel plate on CFS-CTSPSW-1, with all other specifications
beams. Li et al. [33] carried out bending tests on CFS-glulam beams, and remaining the same. Specimen CFS-CTSPSW-4, shown in Fig. 3, was
the test results showed that with the increasing of loading, the web identical to CFS-CTSPSW-1, but two CFS rigid strips (2519 × 117 ×
would gradually distort, and ultimately the CFS beams with clamped 55 × 2.5 mm) were added to the capped columns. Steel rigid strips were
limbs appeared to be separated. Shi et al. [34,35] conducted multiple connected to each end of the columns using 12 M12 high-strength bolts
tests on CFS plate SWs, finding CFS-CTSPSWs had the best shear per­ with a spacing of 37 mm.
formance, followed by CFS tube end-column sheathed steel plate shear For CFS-CTSPSW-1 and − 2, the expected failure mechanisms is that
walls (CFS -TEC-SSPSWs) and then CFS built-up C-section end-column the tension fields of the thin steel plate are fully formed, resulting in
sheathed steel plate shear walls (CFS-BCEC-SSPSWs), also considering plastic deformation and even tearing. Eventually, the shear wall fails
vertical stiffeners and end stud section effects on CFS - CTSPSWs. due to the formation of plastic hinges in the end columns. For CFS-
In summary, while recent research has centered on improving CFS- CTSPSW-3, the expected failure mechanisms is that the end columns
SW shear performance, most studies focused on sheathed CFS-SWs, bear the reciprocating tensile and compressive forces, and the severe
with less attention on clamped steel-plate shear walls. CFS- CTSPSWs, buckling deformation on the compressed side of the column ends leads
where a thin steel plate is clamped by built-up columns and beams with to the failure of the shear wall. For CFS-CTSPSW-4, the expected failure
self tapping screws, can develop tension fields under horizontal load, mechanisms is that the rigid strips and thin steel plate undergo plastic
fully utilizing post buckling strength. This design addresses traditional deformation to resist the horizontal shear force, and ultimately, the
CFS-SW bearing-capacity issues and promotes multi-story and high-rise shear wall fails due to the formation of plastic hinges in the end columns.
CFS building development. Xing and Wang et al. [36–39] studied
CFS-CTSPSWs’ fire performance, proposed a high-temperature load-­
2.2. Material properties
carrying-capacity calculation method, and showed good fire-resistant
bearing capacity. Existing literature on CFS-CTSPSWs is relatively
In the Chinese codes JGJ/T 421–2018 [40] (Technical standard for
limited, primarily focusing on investigating the seismic performance
cold-formed thin-walled steel multi-story residential buildings) and GB
impacts of vertical stiffeners and cross-sectional forms of end columns.
50018–2002 [41] (Technical code for cold-formed thin-walled steel
However, there remains a significant research gap in quantitative ana­
structures), it is required that the thickness of the thin steel plate shall be
lyses of the lateral resistance contributions from steel frames and thin
within the range of 0.46–0.84 mm, and the thickness of the columns and
steel plates within such systems, as well as studies exploring the me­
beams should not be less than 2 mm. Considering the thicknesses of thin
chanical behavior mechanisms of rigid strips in SWs. This is precisely the
steel plates and CFS components commonly used in practical engineer­
gap that the current study aims to fill through systematic investigation.
ing, the thickness of thin steel plates was selected to be 0.8 mm, and the
This paper focuses on shear behavior of CFS-CTSPSWs under lateral
thickness of columns and beams was selected to be 2.5 mm. Moreover,
load. The influences of the steel frame, thin steel plates and rigid strips
the design requirement for SPSWs is a strong steel frame and a weak wall
on the shear resistance performance of CFS-CTSPSWs were quantita­
panel. In the code JGJ/T 421–2018 [40], it is suggested that the steel
tively analyzed. Four self tapping screw connection performance tests
grade of the CFS component shall be Q235 or Q355. In addition, ac­
were conducted to study screw connection shear behavior under
cording to the codes [40] and references [42–44], the grade and thick­
monotonic and hysteresis loading. Four full scale shear loading tests
ness of the rigid strips were consistent with those of the steel frame.
were then carried out to determine CFS-CTSPSWs’ failure characteris­
According to the requirements specified in the Chinese standard GB/
tics, shear capacity, stiffness, and ductility, exploring the influence of
thin steel plates and rigid strips on their shear performance.
Table 1
Specimen number and parameters of CFS-CTSPSWs.
2. Test design
Specimen number Height × width Steel plate thickness Rigid strips
2.1. Specimen design CFS-CTSPSW− 1 2400 mm× 1210 mm 0.8 mm No
CFS-CTSPSW− 2 2400 mm× 1210 mm 0.8 mm No
Four full-scale CFS-CTSPSW specimens were subjected to quasi-static CFS-CTSPSW− 3 2400 mm× 1210 mm — No
CFS-CTSPSW− 4 2400 mm× 1210 mm 0.8 mm Yes
loading tests. The specimens were labeled according to their number and

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Fig. 1. The construction diagram of CFS-CTSPSW-1 and − 2 specimens.

T 2975–2018 [45], three plate-shaped samples were prepared for each LYP160 and Q355 steels were 297.5 MPa and 533.75 MPa respectively.
steel plate thickness. The sample dimensions are shown in Fig. 4a. The higher tensile strength gave the Q355 steel an advantage when it is
Tensile tests were conducted on the steel samples following the test subjected to tensile forces, allowing it to withstand greater tensile forces
method specified in GB/T 228.1–2021 [46]. The loading device of ten­ without breaking. The elongation rates of LYP160 and Q355 steels were
sile tests is shown in Fig. 4b, and an extensometer was used to measure 80.75 % and 50.25 % respectively, indicating that LYP160 had a good
the tensile deformation of samples. The elasticity modulus E was elongation rate. During the process of deformation under force, it could
calculated according to the Chinese standard GB/T 22315–2008 [47]. undergo significant plastic deformation without breaking, and has
The stress-strain curves of steel are shown in Fig. 5 and the material test excellent ductility and energy dissipation capacity.
results are presented in Table 2.
As can be seen from Table 2, there is a significant difference in the
yield strength between LYP160 and Q355 steels, which were 168.5 MPa 2.3. Shear behavior of the screw connections
and 415.6 MPa respectively. The characteristic of low yield strength
enabled the thin steel plate to enter the plastic stage earlier when sub­ The load-bearing capacity of the CFS-CTSPSW mainly depends on the
jected to forces, while the Q355 steel would only start to produce plastic formation and development of tension fields in the thin steel plates,
deformation when it bore a relatively large load. The tensile strengths of which are closely linked to the anchoring effect of the capped columns
on the steel plates. The screw connection between thin steel plates and

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Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

120

70 0.8 70
140.8
70

2.5
40 40 20 160 20
200

(a) Capped section member (b) Double built-up column

12

32 38 33
2.5

103
103

70 0.8 70
12

70 140.8

(c) L-shaped rolled-edge member (d) Double built-up L-shaped rolled-edge beam

Fig. 2. Detailed section view of beams and columns for CFS-CTSPSW-1 and − 2.

Fig. 3. Constructive diagram of CFS-CTSPSW-4.

capped columns is a crucial factor affecting the anchoring effect. Table 3. Because the lack of steel plate with the strength grade of
Consequently, the overall load-bearing capacity of CFS-CTSPSWs is LYP160, the steel plate with the strength grade of Q235 was used in the
closely related to the shear performance of the self-tapping screw screw connection tests, and the material properties of Q235 steel plate
connection between the thin steel plates and columns. Therefore, it is are shown in Table 2.
crucial to conduct shear performance tests on the self-tapping screw The loading devices used for the screw connection tests are shown in
connection between the columns and thin steel plates of CFS-CTSPSWs. Fig. 7. Due to the thinness of the steel plate, buckling can occur when the
plate is under compression. To prevent this, ten 8-mm-diameter high-
2.3.1. Test specimen design and loading scheme strength bolts were used to connect the steel plate on both sides with
For the screw connection tests, four specimens were designed to two connection plates 1. The loading end was bolted to two connection
evaluate the self-tapping screw connection as shown in Fig. 6. Two plates 1 and subjected to cyclic tensile and compressive loads. Two
loading methods were considered: the monotonic and cyclic methods. In connection plates 2 and four connection plates 3 were installed on the
the screw connection specimens, the steel plate thickness was 0.8 mm, web and flanges of the capped columns. Two connection plates 2 are
six ST5.5 × 25 mm screws were used to connect the steel plate and two welded to the fixed end. This construction accurately simulates the load
capped columns, and the screw spacing was 50 mm, as presented in transfer of the screw connection in the CFS-CTSPSWs.

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Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

S0

0
R2

b=50
b=20
40 L0=50
41 19 Lc=130
Lt=250

(a)The size of plate-shaped samples (b)Loading device

Fig. 4. The tensile tests of steel materials.

350 600
300 500
250
400
Stress MPa

Stress MPa
200
300
150
1-1 200 4-1
100 1-2 4-2
50 1-3 100 4-3
1-4 4-4
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Strain Strain

(a) Thickness of 0.8 mm (b) Thickness of 2.5 mm

Fig. 5. Stress-strain curves of steel.

Table 2
Material properties of steel.
Sample number Strength grade Steel thickness Yield Strength Tensile strength Elongation Elasticity modulus E (MPa)
fy (MPa) fu (MPa) ( %)

Test Average Test Average Test Average Test Average Test Average

1–1 LYP160 0.78 0.80 171 168.50 300 297.50 80 80.75 206895 206935
1–2 0.82 165 290 81 202597
1–3 0.82 165 290 81.5 209771
1–4 0.76 173 310 80.5 208477
4–1 Q355 2.44 2.47 412.5 415.63 540 533.75 51 50.25 202415 205282
4–2 2.50 397.5 525.0 50 202895
4–3 2.50 407.5 525.0 50.5 209405
4–4 2.44 445.0 545 49.5 206414
SW-A− 1 Q235 0.80 0.80 273.2 276.00 366.20 368.23 29.5 28.53 197742 200047
SW-A-− 2 0.80 283.2 371.10 27.1 202511
SW-A− 3 0.80 273.2 367.20 29.9 199889

The screw connections were subjected to a shear performance test determined using the equal area method for the skeleton curve, which is
using a servo-controlled universal material-testing machine with specified in the Chinese standard JGJ/T 101–2015 [49].
displacement control. This test method and boundary condition were
referred to the standard JGJ 227–2011 [48].The loading rate was set to 2.3.2. Test phenomena and failure characteristics
2 mm/min [46]. For the hysteresis loading, four displacement loading During monotonic loading, a frictional sound was noticed between
steps were adopted before yielding, and cycled once per loading step. the steel plate and capped columns. As the displacement increased, the
Then three cycles were performed at each displacement level with a thin steel plate slide upward, as shown in Fig. 8a, indicating that the
loading step equal to 0.5 times the yield displacement. The test was steel plate screw holes expanded and became damaged. After the test,
stopped when the load decreased to 85 % of the peak load. The yield the thin steel plate suffered compressive damage near the screw holes, as
displacement for the hysteresis loading was identical with that in the shown in Fig. 8b. For the hysteresis-loading specimens, the thin steel
load- deformation (F-δ) curves of the corresponding monotonic loading plate was exposed to alternating tensile and compressive stresses,
test. In the F-δ curves for monotonic loading specimens without an resulting in a more severe screw hole deformation compared with the
obvious yield point, the yield load Fy and yield displacement δy were monotonic loading case. Consequently, tearing occurred in the thin steel

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the skeleton curve [50]. The peak load Fm and peak deformation δm were
identified as the maximum values on the load-deformation curves of the
screw connection specimen. The failure load Fu and failure deformation
δu were determined at the point on the descending segment of the
skeleton curve corresponding to 85 % of the peak load. The ductility
coefficient μ was calculated as the failure-to-yield deformation ratio.
The characteristic load and deformation values of the screw connection
specimens are listed in Table 4.
Table 4 reveals that, in comparison to the monotonic loading
connection specimens, the yield and peak loads of the cyclic loading
specimens were reduced by 6.1 % and 3.2 %, respectively. This suggests
that cyclic loading causes cumulative damage to the thin steel plate,
ultimately leading to reduced carrying capacity. The minor difference in
the peak load between tension and compression in the cyclic loading
specimens implies that the loading direction had a limited impact on the
shear performance of the cap-shaped column thin steel plate self-tapping
bolt connection. Notably, the peak loads of the monotonic and cyclic
loading specimens are 3.54 and 3.42 times the shear-carrying capacity of
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of screw connection specimens.
a single ST5.5 self-tapping screw, respectively. Based on the analysis of
the failure characteristics of the specimens, it is recommended that the
Table 3 thickness and strength of the thin steel plate be increased to improve the
Screw connection specimen numbers and construction settings. shear-carrying capacity of the screw connection specimens. According to
the Chinese standard JGJ/T 421–2018 [40], the strength grade of the
Specimen Steel plate Number Screw Screw Loading
number thickness of screws spacing Specification method embedded thin steel plate should be Q355, and the thickness should be
(mm) (mm) no less than 0.84 mm.
2–1 0.78 6 50 ST5.5 × 25 monotonic
It is worth noting that Nv represents the shear-bearing capacity of an
2–2 0.79 individual screw. And it was obtained from shear tests of self-tapping
2–3 0.80 hysteresis screws conducted by a servo-controlled universal material-testing ma­
2–4 0.79 chine with displacement control, as shown in Fig. 10a. The loading rate
was set to 2 mm/min. Fig. 10b illustrates the load-deformation curves of
five ST5.5 screws under shear load. The value of Nv in Table 4 was the
plate, as shown in Figs. 8c and 8d.
average value of these five screws.
2.3.3. Screw connection test results
Figs. 9a–9c show the load-deformation curves for each screw 2.4. Loading scheme and measurement point layout
connection specimen, while Fig. 9d presents a comparison between the
load and deformation curve during monotonic loading and the skeleton 2.4.1. Loading device
curves observed during hysteresis loading. The loading device used in the CFS-CTSPSW shear performance tests
For the screw connection specimens, the elastic load Fe and elastic is shown in Fig. 11. The test was conducted using an MTS electron-
deformation δe were determined at a point lying on the rising segment of hydraulic servo digital control structural testing machine system, and
the skeleton curve, which was approximately 0.4 times the peak load Fm, the test data were collected using an IMP data acquisition system. The
according to [39]. The slope of the tangent line drawn at this elastic MTS actuator end head is connected to the loading beam end using four
point was considered the elastic stiffness Ke. The yield load Fy and yield M34 bolts. The end-column corners and L-shaped beams of the test
deformation δy were determined using the equal area method applied to specimens are connected to the top and bottom loading beams using
M22 pull-out bolts and M12 shear bolts, respectively. To ensure stability

Fig. 7. Loading device for screw connection tests.

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Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

Fig. 8. Failure characteristics of screw connection specimens.

50 40
30
40 20

Load/kN
10
Load/kN

30
0
20 -10
-20
10 2-1 -30 2-3Hysteretic curve
2-2 -40 2-3Skeleton curve
0
0 10 20 30 40 -35 -28 -21 -14 -7 0 7 14 21 28 35
Displacement/mm Displacement/mm

(a) 2-1 and 2-2 (b) 2-3

40 40
30 30
20 20
Load/kN
Load/kN

10 10
0 0
-10 -10
2-1
-20 -20 2-2
-30 2-4Hysteretic curve -30 2-3
2-4Skeleton curve
-40 -40 2-4
-35 -28 -21 -14 -7 0 7 14 21 28 35 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Displacement/mm Displacement/mm

(c) 2-4 (d) Comparisons

Fig. 9. Load-deformation curves of screw connection specimens.

Table 4
Results of screw connection specimens.
Specimen number Loading direction Nv δe Ke Fy δy Fm δm δu μ
(kN) (mm) (kN⋅mm− 1) (kN) (mm) (kN) (mm) (mm)

2–1 Positive 11.04 6.87 2.30 37.41 17.45 39.43 21.02 32.95 1.89
2–2 Positive 11.04 5.56 2.78 34.57 14.90 38.70 20.32 24.15 1.62
Average 11.04 6.22 2.54 35.99 16.18 39.07 20.67 28.55 1.76
2–3 Positive 11.04 4.08 3.64 34.06 10.84 37.16 14.53 19.18 1.77
Negative 11.04 5.31 2.91 34.10 16.66 38.66 21.16 24.95 1.50
2–4 Positive 11.04 4.12 3.60 32.33 14.13 37.03 18.01 20.68 1.46
Negative 11.04 5.87 2.62 34.67 15.45 38.40 18.02 25.37 1.65
Average 11.04 5.87 3.19 33.79 14.27 37.81 17.93 22.55 1.60

during loading, the ends of the bottom loading beam were fixed using both sides of the top-loading beam to prevent excessive outward incli­
compression beams and displacement limiters to prevent horizontal nation and overturn deformation of the shear wall. The lateral rolling
sliding and tilting. Additionally, lateral rolling supports were placed on support was in gentle contact with the top-loading beam or a small gap

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14
1
12 2
3
10 4
5
8

Load (kN)
6

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deformation (mm)

(a) Loading device (b) Load-deformation curves

Fig. 10. Shear tests of self-tapping screws.

Fig. 12. Loading scheme of CFS-CTSPSWs.

3. Test observations
Fig. 11. Test loading device of shear wall specimens.
Specimens CFS-CTSPSW-1 and − 2 in Fig. 13a had identical failure
characteristics, so CFS-CTSPSW-1 was used to illustrate. In the initial
should be left between them to avoid the influence of frictional effects on
loading, it was in the elastic stage. As displacement increased, the steel
the test results. The boundary condition of this test for the CFS-CTSPSW
plate generated out-plane deformation and more tension fields. Fig. 13
was referred to the standard JGJ 227–2011 [48]. Displacement sensors
shows the development of the tension fields in the whole loading
were arranged to measure the shear deformation. The arrangement of
process. At a displacement of 18 mm, plastic wrinkles were observed at
displacement sensors and the calculation method for determining the
the steel plate corners. When displacement returned to zero, significant
shear deformation of the shear walls can refer to references [34,35].
residual deformation indicated the steel plate entered the yielding stage.
As plasticity developed, at 126 mm displacement, holes formed and
2.4.2. Loading program
enlarged at the four corners of the thin steel plate (Fig. 14a). Meanwhile,
In the horizontal low-cycle repeated loading test, the loading pro­
the load-resisting ability of the steel plate decreased, and the horizontal
gram was a displacement increment full-range control. Before the test,
loads were gradually borne by the columns. When the end column went
the finite element analysis method was used to estimate the yield load
plastic, a plastic hinge formed above the holddowns at the column
and yield displacement of specimens. This loading program adhered to
bottom (Fig. 13e). With the increase of load displacement, screws were
the test methods specified in the Chinese standard JGJ/T 101–2015
shear off, the bottom ends of columns presented server tearing, and
[49]. The specific loading scheme is shown in Fig. 12. Before yielding,
buckling occurred at the two upper ends of columns (Fig. 14b). After the
the loading was carried out in six steps until the yield displacement was
experiment, the residual deformation of the steel plate was severe as
reached. The increments in each step were equal, and there is one cycle
shown in Fig. 14c.
for each level. After the specimen reached the yield displacement δy, the
CFS-CTSPSW-3 in Fig. 15a was subjected to the same loading as CFS-
loading was controlled with increments that are multiples of the yield
CTSPSW-1. At a displacement of 90 mm, slight compression deforma­
displacement, and there are three cycles for each level. The tests were
tion was observed on the inner sides at both ends of the end columns. As
terminated when the bearing capacity of the shear wall decreased to
displacement increased, buckling deformation emerged on the
85 % of the maximum load. The loading rate of this test was 0.4 mm/s
compression sides of upper-right and lower-right columns near beam-
[51].
column connections (Figs. 15b and 15c). At 180-mm cycle displace­
ment, the horizontal load decreased to 85 % of the maximum load-

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Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

Fig. 13. The development process of tension fields for CFS-CTSPSW-1.

Fig. 14. Failure characteristics of CFS-CTSPSW-1.

Fig. 15. Test phenomenon of CFS-CTSPSW-3.

bearing capacity, and the test was stopped. Fig. 15d shows the four increased. When the displacement reached 45 mm, the steel plate un­
positions of buckling deformation for CFS-CTSPSW-3 after failure. derwent repeated tension-compression deformation under cyclic
For the CFS-CTSPSW-4 specimen in Fig. 16a, rigid strips and the steel loading, and the obvious tension fields along the two main diagonals
plate jointly resisted horizontal loads. At the initial loading stage, the changed continuously, as shown in Fig. 16c. At a displacement of
steel plate formed diagonal tension field which increased in number. At 54 mm, significant global buckling occurred in the lower-left and upper-
a displacement of 12 mm, out-plane bending of compressed rigid strips right rigid strip (Fig. 16d). The experiment continued until the
and global buckling of tensioned ones were observed (Fig. 16b). At a displacement reached 99 mm, when the load decreased to 85 % of the
displacement of 15 mm, slight plastic deformation appeared at the steel peak load, the test terminated and the specimen was considered
plate corners. As displacement increased, the plastic deformation of the destroyed., as shown in Fig. 16e. Fig. 16f shows the final residual
steel plate developed and the out-plane deformation of the steel strip deformation of CFS-CTSPSW-4.

9
Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

Fig. 16. Test phenomenon of specimen CFS-CTSPSW-4.

4. Test results steel plate continues to develop. This led to an increase in the out-of-
plane deformation and higher energy dissipation of the shear wall.
4.1. Hysteretic curves When the specimen was unloaded and zero-load residual deformation
occurred, the lateral stiffness degraded slightly, and the unloading
The hysteresis curves P-Δ of the specimens are shown in Fig. 17. As stiffness was slightly lower than the elastic stiffness. As the load
shown in Figs. 17a and 17b, the hysteresis curves of CFS-CTSPSW-1 and displacement increased, the hysteresis loop area expanded owing to the
CFS-CTSPSW-2 exhibit similar trends. In the initial loading stage, the plastic deformation of the steel plate under tension. Additionally, the
shear wall specimen was in the elastic stage, and the hysteresis curve has hysteresis displacement exhibited a "pinched" phenomenon.
a spindle-like shape. The shear wall exhibits equal loading and In the later loading stages, as the plasticity of the steel plate increased
unloading stiffness, and the hysteresis loop area is relatively small, further, the hysteresis loop changed from spindle-shaped to reverse S-
indicating less energy dissipation. The thin steel plates underwent shaped. During the repeated loading process, the steel plate went
elastic shear buckling. As the applied displacement increased, the through a "buckling-tensioning" process. When the steel plate buckled,
specimen transitioned to the elastic-plastic stage. The hysteresis loop the horizontal load was primarily borne by the end columns, and the
area increases significantly, indicating that the tension fields of the thin "pinching" phenomenon in the hysteresis loop became more prominent.

Fig. 17. Hysteretic curves.

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Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

In the failure stage, the specimen exhibited significant degradation in displacement Δmax are taken from the skeleton curve with the maximum
both stiffness and strength after reaching the maximum load. The plastic load value and corresponding displacement. The failure load Pu and
hinge formed by the bottom bending of the end columns along with the corresponding failure displacement Δu are taken from the curve’s
plastic deformation and tearing of the steel plate contributed to the more descending segment at a load of 85 % of the peak load and corre­
intense hysteresis curve sliding. This made the "pinched" phenomenon in sponding displacement. The ductility factor μ is calculated by dividing
the middle of the hysteresis loop more visible. However, due to the the failure displacement by the yield displacement. Based on the results
limited bearing capacity of the end columns and thin steel plates, the presented in Fig. 18 and Table 5, the following can be concluded:
specimens did not exhibit "load-free sliding.” Instead, the curve still has (i) The skeleton curves for specimens CFS-CTSPSW-1 and CFS-
a small slope, and the hysteresis loops exhibit a shape between the CTSPSW-2 were consistent before the peak load was reached. Howev­
reverse S-shape and Z-shape. er, during the failure stage, the reverse descending segment of CFS-
However, there is a notable difference in the shear displacement CTSPSW-2 significantly differed from that of CFS-CTSPSW-1. This
between the tension and compression directions for specimens CFS- disparity was primarily due to the compression buckling experienced by
CTSPSW-1 and CFS-CTSPSW-2. This difference can be attributed to both the bottom and top of the left-end column when CFS-CTSPSW-2
the horizontal sliding of the specimens during the loading process. The reached the reverse peak load. Consequently, the constraint effect of
uneven gaps in the bolt holes for both the hold-down and shear bolts in the end column on the steel plate was significantly reduced, making it
the loading bottom beam led to asymmetric sliding between the tension difficult for the end column to withstand the uplift force generated by
and compression directions. This asymmetric sliding causes a variation the horizontal shear force and overturning moment. Consequently, the
in the measured displacement at the top of the wall, thereby affecting load-reduction rate during the failure stage of CFS-CTSPSW-2 was
the overall shear displacement of the shear wall. Furthermore, during higher. Additionally, the lower part of the left-end column in both
the failure stage of the specimen, the end columns on both sides of the specimens underwent plastic bending to form a plastic hinge, leading to
shear wall exhibited different failure degrees. This discrepancy in the a greater reverse deformation of the skeleton curve during the failure
failure sequence and degree also contributes to the variation in the stage than in the forward direction.
measured displacement at the top of the wall. (ii) Comparing the results for CFS-CTSPSW-3 with those for CFS-
Comparing the results shown in Fig. 17c with those in Figs. 17a and CTSPSW-1(-2), it can be seen that the average peak load of CFS-
17b, it is evident that the "pinched" effect of the hysteresis loops for CTSPSW-1(-2) was 103.50 kN, and the peak load of CFS-CTSPSW-3
specimen CFS-CTSPSW-3 is more pronounced, with a smaller load peak was approximately 63.6 % lower than that of CFS-CTSPSW-1(-2), and
and increased ductility. This indicates that the presence of steel plates the ductility factor improved by 18.3 %. Therefore, the presence of the
can enhance the bearing capacity and lateral stiffness of the specimen steel plate could substantially increase the load-carrying capacity of the
but can also decrease its ductility. Comparing the results shown in shear wall; however, it could also reduce the ductility of the plates.
Fig. 17d with those in Figs. 17a and 17b, it is apparent that the "pinched" Furthermore, after the column buckling occurred, the bearing capacity
effect of the hysteresis loops for specimen CFS-CTSPSW-4 is less pro­ of CFS-CTSPSW-1 entered the strengthening phase, whereas that of CFS-
nounced, with a higher load peak and lower ductility. This suggests that CTSPSW-3 did not. This indicates that the clamped thin steel plates have
the rigid strips effectively restrained the out-of-plane torsional defor­ strong safety reserves and can withstand large horizontal forces. This
mation of the steel plate, thereby enhancing the bearing capacity of the demonstrates the importance and effectiveness of clamped thin steel
specimens. However, this also results in decreased ductility. plates in enhancing the structural integrity and load-bearing capacity of
CFS-CTSPSWs.
4.2. Skeleton curves (iii) Comparing the results for CFS-CTSPSW-4 with those for CFS-
CTSPSW-1(-2), it can be seen that the peak load of CFS-CTSPSW-4
The skeleton curves of specimens CFS-CTSPSW-1–4 are shown in increased by approximately 44.9 %. This suggests that the rigid strips
Fig. 18. Table 5 lists the skeleton characteristic points of specimens CFS- provide an effective lateral capacity for the CFS-CTSPSWs. However, the
CTSPSW-1–4. It can be seen that the skeleton curves of all four speci­ bearing capacity of the specimen decreased rapidly when the rigid strips
mens do not display any prominent yield point. For load-displacement experienced excessive deformation and buckling. However, the ductility
(P-Δ) curves without an obvious yield point, the yield load Py and factor decreased by 45.4 % compared with CFS-CTSPSW-1(-2). The
yield displacement Δy are determined using the equal area method for reason is that the rigid strips changes the transmission path and force
the skeleton curve, which is specified in the Chinese standard JGJ/T mode of the CFS-CTSPSWs, causing a change in the originally uniform
101–2015 [49]. The peak load Pmax and corresponding peak force distribution of the shear wall. Under horizontal loads, the rigid
strips may attract more shear force, leading to stress concentration in
certain parts of the shear wall. In addition, the presence of rigid strips
limits the out of plane deformation capacity of the steel plate. When the
CFS-CTSPSWs was subjected to a large earthquake, the shear wall needs
to dissipate energy through a certain out of plane deformation. But the
restraining effect of rigid strips may prevent shear walls from fully
exerting their deformation capacity, thereby affecting ductility.
In practical engineering, reasonable setting of rigid strips is of great
significance for shear wall structures, which can improve bearing ca­
pacity, lateral stiffness and seismic performance. Therefore, in engi­
neering design, it is necessary to optimize the layout, cross-sectional
dimensions, and connection methods of rigid strips through reasonable
design and calculation, in order to fully utilize the beneficial effects of
rigid strips, while minimizing their adverse effects on the ductility of
shear walls, and achieving the design goals of structural safety, econ­
omy, and suitability.

4.3. Energy-dissipation capacity

Fig. 18. Skeleton curves of the specimens. The energy-dissipation capacity of a specimen is typically quantified

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Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

Table 5
Characteristic values and ductility factor of the specimens.
Specimen Loading direction Yield point Peak point Ultimate point μ
Py (kN) Δy (mm) Pmax (kN) Δmax (mm) Pu (kN) Δu (mm)

CFS- Push 86.83 36.52 107.21 60.08 91.13 130.55 3.57

CTSPSW− 1 Pull 78.54 45.65 98.58 74.70 83.79 130.12 2.85
Mean 82.69 41.09 102.90 67.39 87.46 130.34 3.17
CFS- Push 86.77 33.91 103.90 77.58 88.32 109.57 3.23
CTSPSW− 2 Pull 85.29 54.78 104.09 91.00 88.48 146.09 2.67
Mean 86.03 44.35 104.00 84.29 88.40 127.83 2.95
CFS- Push 24.24 58.09 37.11 127.36 31.54 197.56 3.40
CTSPSW− 3 Pull 22.69 46.74 38.18 121.73 32.45 182.26 3.90
Mean 23.47 52.42 37.65 124.07 32.00 189.91 3.62
CFS- Push 128.72 52.86 153.54 69.40 130.51 88.04 1.67
CTSPSW− 4 Pull 132.11 46.20 146.47 64.36 124.50 77.28 1.67
Mean 130.42 49.53 150.01 66.88 127.51 82.6 1.67

by the area enclosed by its load-displacement hysteresis curve. The specimens CFS-CTSPSW-3 and − 4, the energy-dissipation capacity
larger the area, the greater the energy that the specimen can dissipate. continued to decrease after reaching the peak load. Moreover, it can be
Fig. 19 shows the energy-dissipation capacity of the specimens, where seen from Fig. 19 that the Ad value of specimen CFS-CTSPSW-4 was
Ad represents the area enclosed by the hysteresis curve. much smaller than that of specimen CFS-CTSPSW-1 and − 2. There may
The results shown in Fig. 19 reveal that during the initial loading be two reasons:
phase, the specimen is in the elastic stage, and the steel plates still
exhibit no plastic deformation. Therefore, the energy dissipation at this 1) Without rigid strips, the deformation of the thin steel plate was
point was relatively low. However, as the loading displacement relatively free, and it could dissipate energy through large defor­
increased, the tension flange of the steel plate yielded and the specimen mation. However, the presence of the rigid strips restricted the out-
entered the plastic stage. Consequently, the energy-dissipation capacity plane deformation of the steel plate, preventing the steel plate
increased significantly with the plastic deformation of the steel plates. In from fully utilizing its deformation energy dissipation capacity.
addition, energy dissipation continued to increase gradually throughout Although this restraining effect improved the load-bearing capacity
the loading process. When the specimens reached their peak load, Ad for of the shear wall to a certain extent, it reduced its ability to dissipate
CFS-CTSPSW-1 was measured to be 9549 kN⋅mm, while that for CFS- energy through large deformation.
CTSPSW-2 was 10280 kN⋅mm. After reaching the peak load, the en­
ergy dissipation of the specimen continued to increase, indicating that 2) The rigid strip changed the stress distribution of the CFS-CTSPSW.
the thin steel plates had not fully entered the plasticity stage and were Without rigid strips, the stress distribution was relatively uniform, and
capable of dissipating energy through plastic deformation. When the the steel plate could bear the load and dissipate energy more evenly.
displacement reached approximately 120 mm, Ad reached its maximum However, after adding the rigid strip, the load would be transferred
value (15000 kN⋅mm), indicating a significant energy-dissipation ca­ preferentially through the rigid strip, resulting in stress concentration in
pacity. However, after this point, the end columns of the shear wall the steel plate near the rigid strip, while the stress in the steel plate in
experience severe tearing, which compromises their ability to anchor other parts was relatively small, and the energy dissipation function
the tension flange to the steel plate. Consequently, the energy- could not be fully exerted. This uneven stress distribution reduced the
dissipation capacity decreased, causing a drop in the hysteresis curve. overall energy dissipation capacity of the shear wall.
The reduced anchorage capacity of the end columns decreased their
energy-dissipation capacity. 4.4. Strength degradation
Compared with specimens CFS-CTSPSW-1 and − 2, the energy-
dissipation efficiency of specimens CFS-CTSPSW-3 and − 4 were lower. Under low-cycle horizontal repeated loading, the bearing capacity of
When the specimens reached their peak load, Ad for CFS-CTSPSW-3 and the specimens decreased with an increase in the number of cycles at the
− 4 were measured to be 5829 and 6132.5 kN⋅mm, respectively. For same loading amplitude of displacement; this is called the bearing ca­
pacity degradation phenomenon. Bearing capacity degradation is an
important manifestation of cumulative damage to the specimens under
repeated loading and can be expressed via the bearing capacity reduc­
tion coefficient λi.

Pi+1
j
λi = , i = 1, 2 (1)
Pij

Under the same loading displacement amplitude, j is the loading

level, λ1 is the ratio of peak loads between the second and first cycles,
while λ2 is the ratio of peak loads between the third and second cycles.
The bearing-capacity degradation curves of the specimens are shown in
Fig. 20.
As can be seen in Fig. 20, the bearing capacity reduction coefficients
of the four specimens exhibit a gradually decreasing trend with an in­
crease in the loading displacement, indicating that the bearing-capacity
degradation degree became increasingly serious as the cyclic loading
progressed. The bearing capacity reduction coefficient of CFS-CTSPSW-
1(-2) reached its minimum (0.872) at the time of failure, while it
Fig. 19. The Ad-Δ curves of shear walls. reached its maximum (0.930) before reaching the peak load, indicating

12
Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

Fig. 20. Strength degradation curves.

that the CFS-CTSPSW specimens exhibited a small bearing-capacity the specimen. The formula for calculating the tangent stiffness Ki at the
degradation and relatively stable load-bearing performance. The speci­ peak point of each loading level is as follows:
mens did not suddenly fail under high loads. Among the specimens
|Fi | + |− Fi |
without the embedded steel plate, CFS-CTSPSW-3 exhibited the lowest K= (2)
|Xi | + |− Xi |
bearing capacity reduction coefficient (0.88) at the time of failure,
indicating that the bearing capacity of the steel frame was relatively Fi and Xi represent the peak load and displacement of the i-th loading
stable. For the specimens with the steel strip, CFS-CTSPSW-4 exhibited a level, respectively. The lstiffness values at each loading level for the four
very small bearing-capacity degradation in the early stage of the loading shear wall specimens during the loading process are listed in Table 6.
displacement and had a bearing capacity reduction coefficient greater Based on the results presented in Table 6, the following could be
than unity. However, it can be seen from Fig. 20 that specimen CFS- concluded:
CTSPSW-4 have an initial value greater than 1. The reason was that (i) The CFS-CTSPSW specimens exhibited good initial lateral stiff­
when the specimen CFS-CTSPSW-4 first entered the yield stage, the ness. Specimens CFS-CTSPSW-1 and − 2 had initial lateral stiffness
clamped steel plate showed only slight buckling, which did not contact values of 11.91 and 7.67 kN/mm, respectively. Before reaching the yield
with rigid strips. As the loading cycle progresses, the clamped steel plate load, as the applied displacement increased, the specimens underwent
bulged to a greater extent when the loading enters the third cycle of the gradual yielding, resulting in a significant degradation in stiffness, with
first loading stage, and this bulge was so great that it came into contact approximately 60 % loss before yielding. After reaching the yield load,
with part of the steel strip. This contact resulted in out-of-plane defor­ the lateral stiffness of the specimens continued to decrease but at a
mation of the steel plate restrained by rigid strips, thereby increasing the slower rate. This decrease is attributed to the increased bending of the
load-carrying capacity of specimen CFS-CTSPSW-4. Therefore, specimen column base. However, the rate of reduction was slow, owing to the
CFS-CTSPSW-4 has an initial value greater than 1. presence of out-of-plane residual deformation in the thin steel plate. As
the displacement increased to a certain level, the out-of-plane defor­
4.5. Stiffness degradation mation of the steel plate stabilized, leading to a gradual stabilization of
the lateral stiffness of the shear walls.
Stiffness degradation refers to a gradual reduction in the stiffness of a (ii) Specimens CFS-CTSPSW-3 and − 4 had initial lateral stiffness
SPSW as the loading and displacement increase, which reflects the in­ values of 1.65 and 6.61 kN/mm, respectively. Compared with CFS-
fluence of cumulative damage and other factors on the lateral stiffness of CTSPSW-1(-2), CFS-CTSPSW-3 exhibited a significantly lower initial

Table 6
Secant stiffness of CFS-CTSPSW specimens at each loading level.
CFS-CTSPSW-1 CFS-CTSPSW-2 CFS-CTSPSW-3 CFS-CTSPSW-4

Δ(mm) Ki(kN/mm) Δ(mm) Ki(kN/mm) Δ(mm) Ki(kN/mm) Δ(mm) Ki(kN/mm)

1 1.38 11.91 1.72 7.67 3.81 1.65 3.06 6.61

2 3.78 7.43 3.08 7.22 6.94 1.20 6.08 5.71
3 5.98 6.00 4.55 6.48 9.98 1.00 9.12 4.84
4 8.34 5.03 6.60 5.37 16.00 0.78 12.18 4.28
5 10.83 4.35 8.99 4.47 34.71 0.54 15.17 3.88
6 13.88 3.73 11.66 3.79 53.69 0.45 18.21 3.56
7 31.96 2.38 29.79 2.28 75.21 0.40 26.83 3.18
8 50.12 1.88 45.98 1.92 94.67 0.36 35.45 2.96
9 67.39 1.53 62.02 1.65 115.82 0.32 44.52 2.71
10 84.18 1.22 77.32 1.34 135.93 0.26 53.59 2.57
11 99.02 0.99 92.27 1.12 - - 61.87 2.38
12 114.46 0.80 107.26 0.95 - - 71.68 2.07
13 129.50 0.64 119.86 0.81 - - 80.64 1.62
14 144.45 0.55 131.08 0.65 - - 90.21 1.12

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Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

stiffness, indicating that embedding thin steel plates could enhance the
initial stiffness of the wall and achieve higher resistance to lateral loads.

Cumulative energy
The initial stiffness of CFS-CTSPSW-4 was smaller than that of CFS-
CTSPSW-1(-2). The reason may be that during the assembly and

dissipation
(kN⋅mm)
installation process of CFS-CTSPSW-4, the steel rigid strips were

130200
89073

82922

26213

18898

16598

10200

58500

11370
6671

7135
tensioned too tightly, and the steel plate had initial out of plane buckling
deformation outside the plane. Therefore, in the initial loading stage,
only the steel rigid strips, beams and columns resisted the horizontal
load, resulting in a decrease in initial stiffness. However, before the CFS-

Initial lateral stiffness of

CTSPSWs reached the yield displacement, the lateral stiffness of CFS-

unit shear walls (kN/

CTSPSW-4 exceeded CFS-CTSPSW-1(-2), and the stiffness degradation
rate of the former was slower, which were due to the fact that the rigid
strips acted as a constraint on the end columns, which in turn made the

mm⋅m)
entire member more integral. The stiffness loss was approximately 60 %

11.91

12.15
7.67

6.61

2.11

1.51

5.00

1.50

1.50
0.31

1.61
before the specimens reached the yield load.

3.17

2.95

1.67

2.75
2.15

1.81

1.43

1.41

1.69
1.43

2.03
5. Discussion and suggestion

μ
5.1. Comparisons of CFS steel plate SWs

123.98
85.04

85.95

94.94
54.57

45.26

37.17

32.30

57.55
24.01

1.09
Shear capacity of
unit shear walls

Pmax
Table 7 compares the shear performance of CFS-CTSPSWs with both
CFS-TEC-SSPSWs and CFS-BCEC-SSPSWs. It should be noted that for

(kN/m)

107.79
68.34

71.10

76.40
50.80

39.73

34.84

29.30

23.22

22.17
51.44
CFS-CTSPSWs, the screw diameter was 5.5 mm, and the yield strength

Py
grade of the steel plate was 160 MPa, while for CFS-TEC-SSPSWs and
CFS-BCEC-SSPSWs, the screw diameter was smaller at 4.8 mm, and the
steel plate strength grade was larger at 355 MPa. It could be seen in

studs: 1.2;

studs: 1.2;
Thickness

C-section

C-section
2.5 mm

Tube: 6

Tube: 6
Table 7 that,

(mm)

1.2

1.2
(i) Comparing CFS-CTSPSW-2 with CFS-SW-R-1, it can be found that
the shear capacity, ductility, initial lateral stiffness and cumula­

studs: Q355;

studs: Q355;
Tube: Q235

Tube: Q235
tive energy dissipation of CFS-CTSPSW-2 were about 1.9, 1.37,

C-section

C-section
Columns

Strength

3.65 and 4.39 times these of CFS-SW-R-1 respectively. Therefore, Q355

Q355

Q355
the yield capacities, peak capacity, failure capacity, ductility,
initial lateral stiffness and energy-dissipation capacity of CFS-
CTSPSWs were all larger significantly than the CFS-TEC-SSPSWs.
spacing

(ii) Comparing CFS-CTSPSWs with CFS-BCEC-SSPSWs, the advan­

(mm)

400

400

400

400
1000
Stud

600
tage of CFS-CTSPSWs in terms of shear performance was more
pronounced. Taking CFS-SW-1 as an example, the shear capacity,
Thickness

ductility, initial lateral stiffness and cumulative energy dissipa­

(mm)

tion of CFS-CTSPSW-4 were about 3.32, 2.06, 24 and 3.67 times

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.8

0.8

0.8
0.8

0.8
these of CFS-SW-1 respectively.
Comparison of the shear performance between CFS-CTSPSWs and sheathed SPSWs.
Steel plate

Strength

LYP160

Above results highlight the mechanical performance advantages of

Q355

Q355

Q355

Q355
CFS-CTSPSWs. The fundamental reason why the shear performance of
CFS-CTSPSWs were higher than that of CFS-TEC-SSPSWs and CFS-BCEC-
Spacing

SSPSWs lies in the different force-bearing mechanisms. For CFS-

50/300

50/300
50/300

50/300
(mm)

150/

CTSPSWs, the thin steel plate was constrained by the peripheral edge
300
50

members. The thin steel plate formed an oblique tensile fields to resist
the horizontal shear force, and the out-plane deformation of the thin
Diameter
Screws

steel plate dissipated energy. The addition of steel strips would further
(mm)

5.5

4.8

4.8

4.8
4.8

4.8

improve the shear bearing capacity of CFS-CTSPSWs. However, for CFS-

TEC-SSPSWs and CFS-BCEC-SSPSWs, they relied on the screw connec­
tions between the thin steel plate and the CFS frame to resist the hori­
× width (m)

2.4 × 1.21

zontal load. Moreover, the out-plane deformation of the thin steel plate
2.4 × 1.2

2.4 × 2.4

2.4 × 1.2

2.4 × 1.2

2.4 × 2.4
Height

was relatively small, resulting in a lower energy dissipation capacity.

(iii) But by comparing CFS-CTSPSW-4 with C-SW-2, some short­
comings were found. CFS-CTSPSW-4 was the shear wall with rigid strips,
C- SW-2 was with vertical stiffeners, and other details of these two shear
CFS BCEC–
CTSPSWs

CFS-TEC-

walls were identical. It can be found in Table 7 that the yield capacity
SSPSWs

SSPSWs

and peak capacity of CFS-CTSPSW-4 were 1.41 and 1.31 times these of
Type

CFS-

C-SW-2, but the ductility, initial lateral stiffness and cumulative energy
dissipation of CFS-CTSPSW-4 decreased by 0.61, 0.54 and 3.97 times
CTSPSW− 1

CTSPSW− 2

CTSPSW− 4

CFS-SW-R− 1

CFS-SW-R− 2

CFS-SW-R− 3
C-SW− 2[35]

S-SW− 2[35]

S-SW− 3[35]

compared to C-SW-2. This indicated that the rigid strips can improve the
CFS-SW− 1

CFS-SW− 3
Specimen

shear capacity of CFS-CTSPSWs more effectively than vertical stiffeners,

Table 7

[34]

[34]

[34]

[34]

[34]

but further optimization of the structure of CFS-CTSPSWs is needed to

CFS-

CFS-

CFS-

consider the adverse effects of rigid strips on ductility, initial stiffness

14
Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

and energy-dissipation capacity. should be made based on the specific structure of the shear wall
to fully utilize the steel plates and rigid steel strips.
(iii) The shear behavior of the pure frame CFS-CTSPSWs was signifi­
5.2. Suggestions cantly lower than that of the shear walls with clamped steel
plates. This reveals that the clamped steel plate can make the
Based on the findings of the present study, some recommendations shear wall members closely connected, increase the integrity, and
and comments on the design methodology are given: therefore significantly improve the lateral stiffness and shear
capacity of the CFS-CTSPSWs. The presence of rigid strips could
(i) The failure criteria of CFS-CTSPSWs is characterized by the for­ effectively restrain the deformation of the end columns, which
mation of a plastic hinge resulting from buckling at the end of the could substantially increase the load-carrying capacity of the
column, which reduces the overall load-bearing capacity of the shear walls. However, it also substantially limited the displace­
shear wall and renders it incapable of effectively resisting lateral ment and reduced the ductility of the CFS-CTSPSW specimens.
loads. The end column plays a crucial role in the mechanical
performance of the CFS-CTSPSWs, and the tension fields relies on From the perspective of industry standards and design codes, the
the anchoring effect provided by the end column to resist hori­ findings of this study provide critical experimental evidence for revising
zontal forces together with the end column. Therefore, the design and improving relevant specifications. Current cold-formed steel struc­
of CFS-CTSPSWs should follow the basic principle of "strong end ture standards do not yet address CFS-CTSPSWs. This research clarifies
columns, weak steel plates". Both methods of enhancing end the mechanical mechanisms of this novel shear wall system and estab­
columns and appropriately weakening steel plates can better lishes quantitative relationships between key parameters (e.g., thin steel
utilize the performance of SPSWs. plate and rigid strip arrangement) and seismic performance metrics.
(ii) Considering that steel strips could reduce the ductility and initial These results can supplement existing provisions in standards regarding
stiffness of CFS-CTSPSWs, some measures can be taken for opti­ CFS-SWs, thereby enhancing the comprehensiveness of design codes. In
mization, such as decreasing the yield strength and thickness of terms of engineering applications, the findings hold significant practical
rigid strips, and slits could be made in the steel rigid strips to implications. CFS-SWs are widely adopted in multi-story residential
enhance its deformation capacity. In addition, using elliptical buildings, hotels, schools, hospitals, and other buildings. Based on the
holes when connecting steel rigid strips to end columns. When the conclusions of this study, engineers can optimize the design of such
shear wall deforms and the steel rigid strips are tightened, they walls by strategically configuring rigid straps to improve seismic resil­
can resist horizontal shear forces together with thin steel plates. ience. Additionally, this study offers novel insights for developing next-
(iii) To modeling the damage of CFS-CTSPSWs in numerical study, it generation SPSWs, which may advance engineering technologies in
is necessary to set up the simulation by combining the nonlinear prefabricated and lightweight structural systems.
constitutive model of the material and the damage evolution At present, there are two technical bottlenecks in promoting the
criterion. First, an appropriate elastoplastic constitutive model configuration of the CFS-CTSPSW with rigid strips. Firstly, premature
for steel should be selected. It is recommended to use the buckling failure of the end columns leaded to insufficient energy dissi­
Johnson-Cook model or the isotropic hardening model. The pation of the steel plates, resulting in premature failure of SWs; The
following parameters need to be input, including elastic modulus, second reason is that rigid strips leaded to lower ductility of SWs.
Poisson’s ratio, yield strength, and hardening parameters. Addi­ Therefore, subsequent studies will concentrate on ductility-
tionally, regarding the definition of the damage model, damage is enhancement approaches for CFS-CTSPSWs configured with rigid
triggered by the equivalent plastic strain. It is necessary to define strips, with parallel investigations into the effects of buckling-restrained
the damage initiation criterion and the damage evolution end columns on the shear wall’s load-resisting mechanisms and failure
criterion. modes.

6. Conclusions CRediT authorship contribution statement

Based on the quasi-static loading test results for full-sized CFS- Shi Yu: Supervision, Funding acquisition. Xiang Yi: Funding
CTSPSW specimens, as well as the shear performance of the self-tapping acquisition. Guan Yu: Investigation, Funding acquisition. Yao Xinmei:
screw connection between the columns and thin steel plates of the CFS- Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisi­
CTSPSWs, the main conclusions of this study can be summarized as tion. Zou Yuxuan: Investigation, Funding acquisition. Zhou Ziming:
follows: Investigation. Hou Shiqi: Investigation. Zhou Xuhong: Supervision.

(i) Damage to the self-tapping screw connections between the col­ Declaration of Competing Interest
umns and thin steel plates mainly involved pressure-bearing
damage to the holes in the thin steel plates. Compared with The authors declared that they have no conflicts of interest to this
monotonic loading, hysteretic loading resulted in cumulative work.
damage to the thin steel plates and decreased their load-bearing We declare that we do not have any commercial or associative in­
capacity. The thickness and strength grade of the steel plate terest that represents a conflict of interest in connection with the work
could be increased to improve the shear load capacity of the submitted.
screw connection. The recommended steel plate thickness should
be no less than 0.84 mm and the strength grade should be Q355. Acknowledgement
(ii) In the CFS-CTSPSW force mechanism, the clamped steel plate
undergoes plastic deformation to form tensile bands to resist The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the National Natural
horizontal loads and achieve energy consumption. Simulta­ Science Foundation of China (grant numbers: 52378132 and
neously, the additional bending moment and axial force gener­ 52308145), the Natural Science Foundation Research Project of Shaanxi
ated by the tensile bands of the steel plate on the end column Province (grant numbers: 2025JC-YBMS-385), the Natural Science
cause the buckling and tearing of the column. Therefore, the Foundation of Chongqing Municipality (grant number: 2024NSCQ-
thickness and strength of the end column significantly affect the MSX1077), Key R&D Plan Project of Weinan City (grant number:
shear performance of shear walls, and appropriate adjustments ZDYFJH-412), and Chongqing Postdoctoral Science Foundation

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Y. Xinmei et al. Engineering Structures 338 (2025) 120550

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