CHAPTER
4
HOW DO NEURONS TRANSMIT
INFORMATION?
The Nerve Impulse
A nerve impulse is the electrical message that is transmitted
down the axon of a neuron.
The impulse does not “travel” down the axon but is regenerated
at points along the axon.
The speed of nerve impulses ranges from approximately 1 m/s
to 100 m/s.
Membrane Potentials
At rest, the membrane maintains an electrical
polarization (difference, or gradient) between the
intracellular and extracellular fluids
◦ Inside of the membrane is slightly negative with respect to
the outside. (approximately -70 millivolts)
The resting potential of a neuron refers to the state
of the neuron prior to the sending of a nerve
impulse.
Four charged particles determine the resting
potential
Resting Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-)
◦ Higher concentration outside cell
Potential Potassium (K+) and large proteins (A-)
◦ Higher concentration inside cell
Membrane properties
The membrane is selectively permeable, allowing
some chemicals to pass more freely than others.
Sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride pass
through channels in the membrane.
When the membrane is at rest:
◦ Sodium channels are closed
◦ Potassium channels are partially closed – K+ may leak out of cells
◦ Sodium-Potassium pump actively pumps K+ back into cell, while
expelling Na+
◦ 2/3 ratio ensures the -70mV resting potential is maintained
◦ NA + -K + pump is metabolically costly (requires energy via glucose absorption)
Neuron membrane
Fig. 2-3, p. 30
Gradients and polarization
◦ The electrical gradient and the concentration gradient (the
difference in distributions of ions) “want” to pull sodium ions
into the cell
◦ While channels are closed, this does not happen
◦ The electrical gradient and sodium-potassium pump tends to
pull potassium ions into the cells
◦ Concentration gradient causes K+ leakage
The Action Potential
The resting potential remains stable until the neuron is stimulated.
The threshold of excitement refers to a levels above which any
stimulation produces a massive depolarization = action potential.
◦ Depolarization refers to decreasing the polarization towards zero.
Voltage-activated channels: permeability depends upon the voltage
difference across the membrane.
◦ Sodium channels are voltage activated channels.
◦ When sodium channels are opened, positively charged sodium ions rush in and
a subsequent nerve impulse occurs.
The Action Potential
Once threshold is crossed:
◦ Action potential begins – rapid depolarization
◦ Membrane potential overshoots and becomes positively charged
◦ Recall electrical and concentration gradients: pull Na+ into cell
◦ Na+ channels quickly close
◦ K+ channels open
◦ Gradients pull K+ out of cell
◦ Membrane potential depolarizes again, and overshoots again
Refractory periods
◦ Absolute: a new action potential cannot be triggered during this time
◦ Relative: a new action potential may be triggered but is more difficult
because cell voltage is below resting potential
◦ The Na+ - K+ pump restores the original distribution of ions during this period
The Nerve Impulse
The action potential begins at the axon
hillock (a protrusion where the axon exits
the soma).
Propagation of the action potential:
transmission of the action potential down
the axon
The Nerve Impulse
The myelin sheath of axons are interrupted by short unmyelinated
sections called nodes of Ranvier.
Myelin is an insulating material composed of fats and proteins: blocks any
ion channels that it covers along the axon
At each node of Ranvier, the action potential is regenerated
Saltatory conduction: “jumping” of the action potential from node to
node.
◦ Rapid conduction of impulses
Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease in which the myelin sheath is
destroyed by the immune system and associated with poor muscle
coordination.