Animal Managements &

Behaviour

University of Sulaimani
College of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Basic Sciences

Animal Behaviour & Measuring

 Animal behaviour

Animal Behaviour: is animal movement or act

Ethology: is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour

Ethogram: is a catalogue of descriptions of the discrete, species-typical behaviour

pattern that form the basic behavioural repertoire of the species.

Animal ecology: is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms
and their environment.

Methods to Study Ecology

• Theoretical

– Mathematical models

• Laboratory

– Highly controlled but lack realism

• Field

– Highly realistic but may lack control

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 Measuring behaviour

Types of measure:

1. Latency
(measured in units of time; e.g., s, min or h) is the time from specified event to
the onset of the first occurrence of the behaviour.
2. Frequency
(measured in reciprocal units of time; e.g., s-1, min-1 or h-1) is the number of
occurrences of the behaviour pattern per unit time. Frequency is a measure of
the rate of occurrence.
3. Duration
(measured in units of time; e.g., s, min or h) is the length of time for which a
single occurrence of the behaviour pattern lasts.
A. Total duration
Can be expressed as proportion or percentage of the observation period, in which
case it should be explicitly referred to as the proportion or percentage of time
spent performing behaviour. For example, if a kitten spent a total of 10 min
suckling during a 30-min observation session, then the proportion of time spent
suckling was 10/30 = 0.33.
B. Mean duration
It is also used to refer to the mean length of a single occurrence of the behaviour
pattern, measured in units of time (e.g., s, min or h). It can be calculated by
dividing the total duration of the behaviour pattern by the total number of
occurrences (mean bout length), or it can be obtained by recording the duration
of each occurrence of the behaviour pattern and calculating the mean of these
durations.
4. Intensity
unlike latency, frequency and duration, has no universal definition. An example
of intensity is to measure the sound intensity.

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Note: Frequency and duration are the measures most commonly used for describing
behaviour.

Events vs. States

Events are behaviour pattern of relatively short duration, such as vocalisation.

States are behaviour pattern for relatively long duration, such as lying.

Recording methods

1. Sampling rules

A. Ad libitum sampling The observer simply notes down whatever is visible and seems
relevant at the time. Clearly, the problem with this method is that observations will be
biased toward those behaviour patterns.

B. Focal sampling means observing one individual for a specified amount of time and
recording all instances of its behaviour. Focal sampling can be particularly difficult
under field conditions because the focal individual may leave the area and disappear
completely.

C. Scan sampling means that a whole group of subjects is rapidly scanned at regular
intervals and the behaviour of each individual at that instant is recorded.

D. Behaviour sampling means that the observer watches the whole group of subjects
and records each occurrence of a particular type of behaviour, together with details of
which individuals were involved.

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2. Recording rules

A. Continuous recording (or ‘all-occurrences recording’): This method aims to

provide an exact and faithful record of the behaviour, measuring true frequencies and
durations.

B. Time sampling: The behaviour is sampled periodically, therefore less information

is preserved and an exact record of the behaviour is not necessarily obtained.

1. Instantaneous sampling

The observation session is divided into short sample intervals. The shorter the sample
interval, the more accurate results. The score obtained by instantaneous sampling is
expressed as the proportion of all sample points on which the behaviour pattern was
occurring. For example, if a 30-min recording session was divided into 15-s sample
intervals, and the behaviour pattern occurred on 40 out of 120 sample points, then the
score would be 40/120 = 0.33.

*Sample interval: The observation session is divided into successive, short periods of
time called sample intervals.

2. One-zero sampling

The observer records whether or not the behaviour has occurred during the preceding
sample interval.

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 Ethograms
It is a catalogue of descriptions of the discrete, species-typical behaviour pattern that form the basic
behavioural repertoire of the species.

1. Ethogram of general (normal and abnormal) behaviours recorded in lambs and

kids.
No. Behaviour Description
1 Locomotion Include jump (Lamb moved forward using bunny hops with its hind
limbs) and run (Fast movement in which faster than a walk, motion in
forwards or sideway direction).

2 Lying Belly and flanks of lamb in contact with the ground. No weight is
supported by any of the hooves. Eyes are open or closed.

A Normal lying Ventral (sternal) recumbence with the legs tucked in and the head down,
either round to one side or directly in front or head up. Head up
associated with trembling was excluded from the normal lying score.

B Abnormal lying Ventral recumbence with the hind limbs partially or fully extended, or
with the lamb keeping the scrotal region off the ground (dog sitting). The
position of the head did not affect classification of these postures.

3 Standing All standing while not eating, drinking or exhibiting other motor
behaviours in play arena or home pen. The lambs standing in the middle
or side of the holding pen without looking at play arena or alley is defined
as standing still

A Normal Standing Standing, walking and playing, eating or investigating with no apparent
abnormalities

B Abnormal standing Standing or walking unsteadily sometimes with tail wagging; walking
backwards; walking on knees; moving forwards with bunny hops,
circling; leaning on a support or falling. Abnormal standing was often
associated with frequent foot stamping, kicking and tail wagging.

C Statue standing Standing still for more than 10 seconds, usually with the hind limbs
slightly apart and positioned further back than normal and if in addition
the back was arched, the tail tucked between the hind legs and the lamb
was trembling.

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D Stand face holding Standing facing holding pen within distance of 5 cm from play arena,
continuous looking towards the holding pen for 10 s
E Stand face alley Lambs standing looking towards alley from the holding pen.

F Stand face arena Lambs standing looking towards play arena from the holding pen

4 Walking
A Normal Walking Slow, leisurely movement, two or three hoofs touch the ground at any
time, at least 3 steps forward in the play arena or home pen and at least
2 steps forward in the holding pen.

B Abnormal Walking Slow or quick, not a leisurely movement.

5 Sniff pen/arena Nose within 5 cm of the floor, walls or substrate and inhaling air. Walking
with sniffing is also included.

6 Paw Using front leg to strike ground. Every extension on paw is not counted.
But if the animal changes the leg and starts pawing then it is counted as
new pawing.

7 Rubbing and Rubbing body against the pen or objects, scratching body with hind leg
Scratch or stretching whole or part of the body.

8 Lick Using tongue to lick any part of the body.

9 Feeding Lowering the head with muzzle in feed trough. Eating straw of pen is
also included.

10 Drinking Muzzle in contact with water and ingesting water.

11 Vocalisation Long bleat of lambs.
12 Chew tunnel, pen Licking or chewing tunnel and pen.
13 Pushing One lamb pushes another lamb with the head or body while eating from
the feed trough.

14 Defecation Excretion of faeces in holding pen.

15 Bite bar arena Mouth in the bar of holding pen facing towards play arena.
16 Bite bar alley Mouth in the bar of holding pen facing towards alley.

17 Foot stamping One action was recorded when either a front or hind limb (usually hind
limb) was lifted and forcefully placed on the ground while standing or
was used to kick while standing or lying.
18 Suckling Suckling or milk feeding from dams teat (udder).
19 Tail wagging A single side-to-side tail movement was recorded as one action; a
continuous series of tail movements, without obvious pause with the tail

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 hanging down, was counted as one action. Tail wags while teat seeking
were not counted.
20 Restlessness Number of times the lamb stood up and lay down.
21 Combined
scores:
A Active
behaviours
i REQ Restlessness + foot stamping
ii REW REQ + tail wagging
iii Total active REW + vocalisation
behaviours
B Postures
i Total abnormal Statue standing + abnormal standing
standing
ii Total normal Normal lying + normal standing
postures
iii Total abnormal Total abnormal standing + total abnormal lying
postures

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2. Ethogram of play behaviours recorded in lambs.
No. Behaviour Description
1 Locomotor play
i Run Fast movement across pen or any gait faster than a walk, motion in forwards
or sideway direction.
ii Jump The two forelegs are lifted from the ground; the forepart of the body is
elevated. Movement upward.
iii Gambol Stiff legged jumping motions during which the body and head are commonly
twisted repeatedly.
2 Social play
i Butt Two animals push or run into each other with their heads. Can be in a
unidirectional or bidirectional fashion. Distinct lowering of head in attempts
to butt other animal within 2 cm is included. Butting body from side, front
and back is also included.
ii Sniff pen mate Nose within 5 cm of any part of the body of a pen mate and inhaling air.
iii Mount Animal stands on back two legs and raises front two legs on top of another
animal (mounts another lambs’ head or body from front, side, or back).
Unsuccessful attempts to mounts are also included.
3 Object play
i Sniff object Nose within 5 cm of the ball, tunnel or chain and inhaling air.
ii Pass through Two forelegs and half of the body inside tunnel or entire body passing
tunnel through the tunnel. Includes walking, sniffing and jumping inside tunnel.
iii Roll ball Head or foot of lamb touching volley ball with slight movement or heavy
movement of volleyball. Each rolling is counted as a separate roll
iv Pull chain Using head to play with chain or chain in the mouth with distinct chewing of
chain. Every single attempt to play is counted

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3. Ethogram of aggressive behaviours recorded in ruminants during feeding period.
No. Behaviour Description
1 Ago-non-Phys All agonistic interactions without physical contact received in the
feeding area with and without displacement, including avoidance and
threatening. Avoiding describes a animal leaving her place (receiver)
in response to another animal (actor).

2 Ago-Phys All agonistic interactions with physical contact received in the feeding
area with and without displacement. This include butts, horn kicks,
levering outs, hits, pushes, and bites.

3 Displace-Total This variable sums up all agonistic behaviour leading to displacement

of the receiver from the feeding place, i.e., the receiver was standing
in the feed barrier and left its place in response to an interaction. In
case of the palisades and the diagonal fence, displacement from the
feed barrier implied the receiver took the head fully out of the feed
barrier and vacated the feeding place. In case of the neck rail, it also

i ActorIN-non-Phys All interactions resulting in displacement of the receiver without

physical contact, both receiver and actor standing in the feed barrier.

ii ActorIN-Phys All interactions resulting in displacement of the receiver with physical

contact, both receiver and actor standing in the feed barrier.

iii Ago-no success- All agonistic interactions to which a receiver does not react and stays
ActorIN in the feed barrier, both receiver and actor standing in the feed
barrier.

iv ActorOUT-non- All interactions resulting in displacement of the receiver without

Phys physical contact, the receiver standing in the feed barrier and the actor
interacting from outside the feed barrier.

v ActorOUT-Phys All interactions resulting in displacement of the receiver without

physical contact, the receiver standing in the feed barrier and the actor
interacting from outside the feed barrier.

vi Ago-no success- All agonistic interactions to which a receiver does not react and stays
ActorOUT in the feed barrier, the receiver standing in the feed barrier and the
actor interacting from outside the feed barrier.

4 Ago-total All agonistic interactions in the feeding area.

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Ago-non-Phys: Agonistic interactions without physical contact.

Ago-Phys: Agonistic interactions with physical contact.

Displace-Total: All displacements from feeding place in the feed barrier.

ActorIN-non-Phys: Displacement from feeding place by an actor in the feed barrier, without physical
contact.

ActorIN-Phys: Displacement from feeding place by an actor in the feed barrier, with physical contact

ActorOUT-non-Phys: Displacement from feeding place by an actor outside the feed barrier, without physical
contact.

ActorOUT-Phys: Displacement from feeding place by an actor outside the feed barrier, with physical
contact.

Ago-no success-ActorIN: Agonistic interactions without success by an actor in the feed barrier.

Ago-no success-ActorOUT: Agonistic interactions without success by an actor outside the feed barrier.

Dominance relationships of animals: DV = Number of animals dominated by animal A/ Number of animals

dominating animal A

Low-ranking (0.00–0.33), medium-ranking (0.34–0.66) or high-ranking (0.67–1.00)

4. Daily Activity Budget

Milking (if included), feeding, standing, or lying. These behavioural patterns were calculated in
percent, representing in sum 100% of the daily activity budget.

No. Activity Description

1 Feeding When an animal had its head put completely through the feed barrier and
over the feeding table.
2 Standing Standing described the animals standing as well as moving, more
precisely, when the feet had to carry the animal’s body weight.
3 Lying Lying included resting and sleeping behaviour, when animals were lying on
all four legs
4 Milking During milking periods

Note: Activity budget can be calculated based on 24 or 48 hrs and also 1 hr after food supply

Animals should be ranked as low-ranking, middle-ranking and high-ranking according to their

body condition score.

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5. Feeding, resting and agonistic behaviour:

1. Total feeding time ([min], max. 120 min).

2. Total resting time ([min], max. 240 min).

3. Length of feeding bouts interrupted due to a social reason [min].

4. Length of resting bouts interrupted due to a social reason [min].

5. Rate of displacements received whilst feeding [no./h] ((number of feeding bouts interrupted due
to a displacement received/total feeding time) * 60 min).

6. Rate of displacements received whilst resting [no./h] ((number of resting bouts interrupted due to
a displacement received/total resting time) * 60 min).

7. Rate of agonistic interactions initiated whilst feeding [no./h] ((number of feeding bouts
interrupted due to an agonistic interaction initiated/total feeding time) * 60 min).

8. Rate of agonistic interactions initiated whilst resting [no./h] ((number of resting bouts interrupted
due to an agonistic interaction initiated/total resting time) * 60 min).

9. Total duration of feeding at night (between 1.00 and 5.00am) ([min], max. 240 min).

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