Mod 5

Q3
A sniper is shooting at a hanging target that is 250 m away. The target is horizontal in line with the
barrel of the gun. As soon as the sniper pulls the trigger, the target will drop and fall to the floor.
Air resistance is negligible. Should the sniper aim just above, just below, or at the target? Give
reasons for your answer.
3 marks

 The sniper should aim directly at the target.

 Aiming horizontally means the bullet and the target will both have an initial vertical
velocity of zero.
 Both will accelerate downwards in unison since acceleration is the same for both. The
horizontal motion of the bullet is independent of its vertical motion, so the bullet will stay
in line with the falling target, eventually striking it.
- 1 mark for identifying optimum angle
- 1 mark for progress towards solution
- 1 mark for solution
 Mod 6

Q7
An electron is travelling north at a constant speed. An electric and magnetic field are switched on
at the same time with opposite directions. The magnetic field is applied to the east, and the
electric field is applied to the west. These fields can be considered to be infinitely large.

Explain the motion of the electron after the fields are switched on, using a diagram to help
demonstrate your answer.
5 marks

 The electric field will cause the electron to accelerate to the east.
 The magnetic field will cause the electron to undergo uniform circular motion in the
North/South, Up/Down plane.
 These components combine and cause the electron to spiral.
 Each circle in the spiral has a fixed radius but each individual spiral is longer in the
east/west direction (increasing pitch).


Q4
In class, you conducted a practical investigation into the forces between two parallel current
carrying wires.
a) Describe the investigation you conducted, including identifying the independent and
dependent variables.
3 marks
b) Discuss the validity, accuracy and reliability of the experiment you conducted.
 4 marks

Q4
In class, you conducted a practical investigation into the forces between two parallel current
carrying wires.
a) Describe the investigation you conducted, including identifying the independent and
dependent variables.
3 marks
 The investigation involved using a scale to measure weight differences in a current
carrying wire, due to the force from another current carrying wire, in order to verify the
value of μ0.
 The independent variable was current and
 the dependent variable was the force produced.
b) Discuss the validity, accuracy and reliability of the experiment you conducted.
4 marks
 The experiment was accurate,
 yielding a value close to the expected value for μ0.
 The experiment was also reliable, as a line of best fit was used to analyse results, though
the existence of one outlier does suggest reliability could have been improved.
 The experiment was not totally valid, however, since the distance between the wires
could not be measured with total accuracy, and the wires were not perfectly parallel.
Q8
Explain why transformers are used in the distribution of electrical energy.
5 marks

 Transformers are used to reduce power loss when transmitting electrical energy long
distances. Power loss in distribution lines is given by P = I 2R,
 so losses are reduced by stepping up voltage and stepping down current using a step up
transformer.
 Step down transformers then decrease the voltage before it is used by consumers, since
the high transmission voltages are not safe for direct use. This efficiency improvement
 reduces costs while maintaining safety for the public.
 Transformers also allow different appliances to be used from a single supply. They allow
high voltage appliances,
 like washers/dryers, to be connect to the same supply as low voltage ones like laptops.
Each device contains a transformer to step up/down the voltage as required. This system
facilitates the use of devices as we are accustomed to in modern life.
Q4
A motor has a radial, 0.4 T magnetic field and a shaft with diameter 10 cm. It is being used to lift a
5 kg weight, as shown below.

The coil used in the motor is square, with 4 cm sides and 150 turns. Calculate the current required
in the coil of the motor to lift the weight.
5 marks

 W =mg=5 ( 9.8 )=49 N

 τ =Frsinθ=49
2( )
0.1
( sin 90 )=2.45 Nm
 τ =BAIn ( cosθ=1 for radial field )
τ 2.45
 I= = =¿
BAn 0.4 ( 0.04 )2 ( 150 )
 I =25.52 A

Q5
Explain how ‘back emf’ affects the design of DC motors.
3 marks

 Back emf is the induced emf which opposes the supply in a spinning electric motor.
 Motors are designed to have a supply current larger than what is actually required, so that
 after back emf, the current in the coil produces the desired torque. However, this is only
when the coil is spinning. The full supply current will flow in the coil on start-up.
 The coil in a DC motor is designed to have a large enough resistance to carry the full
supply current without overheating or otherwise being damaged.
Q6
A student proposes an electric vehicle design where each wheel will be driven by a convertible
electric apparatus connected to a battery. While accelerating, the apparatus will act as a motor,
using energy from the battery. When braking, the apparatus will act as a generator to charge the
battery.
a) With reference to Lenz’s law, explain how electromagnetic induction is applied in
magnetic braking.
4 marks
b) A student claims this vehicle will never need to be recharged. Is this claim correct? Justify
your answer.
3 marks

Q6
A student proposes an electric vehicle design where each wheel will be driven by a convertible
electric apparatus connected to a battery. While accelerating, the apparatus will act as a motor,
using energy from the battery. When braking, the apparatus will act as a generator to charge the
battery.
a) With reference to Lenz’s law, explain how electromagnetic induction is applied in
magnetic braking.
4 marks
 Lenz’s law dictates that induced currents will flow to oppose the change that created
them.
 This is the essence of magnetic braking.
 Large conductive plates are fixed to the object in motion. If these plates enter a magnetic
field (eg approach a strong permanent magnet) then eddy currents will be formed due to
electromagnetic induction. These currents flow to create an opposing magnetic field.
 Since the change was induced by a motion in one direction, the opposing field results in a
force in the other direction due to Lenz’s law, thus deaccelerating the object.
b) A student claims this vehicle will never need to be recharged. Is this claim correct? Justify
your answer.
3 marks
 This claim is incorrect.
 The energy transformations involved are not 100% efficient.
 In converting electrical energy to kinetic energy and back again, energy is lost due to
friction, resistive heating in the rotor coils, and (while motoring) back emf. Energy
could also be used in the car’s instruments. Eventually, these inefficient
transformations require the battery to be recharged.
Q36
A simple DC motor is used to drive a benchtop drill. The motor is connected in series with a
variable resistor to protect the windings in the coil as shown in the diagram below.
The variable resistor is adjusted to have a large resistance when the motor is starting up and the
resistance is slowly lowered as the motor reaches its operating speed.
Explain improvements that can be made to motors to minimise the issues with torque and back
emf.
8 marks

 Student outlines 4 improvements to the DC motor drawn above and details the Physics
principle that governs this improvement and how this principle plays role. Student must
include at least 1 improvement that addresses torque and 1 improvement that addresses
back emf.
o Eg
o More coils, higher current etc
o Orient coils and split ring commutators in multiple directions
o Back emf is the induced emf which opposes the supply in a spinning electric
motor. Motors are designed to have a supply current larger than what is actually
required, so that after back emf, the current in the coil produces the desired
torque. However, this is only when the coil is spinning. The full supply current will
flow in the coil on start-up. The coil in a DC motor is designed to have a large
enough resistance to carry the full supply current without overheating or
otherwise being damaged.
 OR
 Student describes 3 improvements to the DC motor drawn above and explains the Physics
principle that governs this improvement and details how this principle plays role
(diagrams). Student must include at least 1 improvement that addresses torque and 1
improvement that addresses back emf.

Common mistakes were:

• BACK EMF!!!! Most were not only wrong but started to contradict yourselves mid-
sentence. Back emf is not a source of energy loss. You can’t stop/reduce back emf ever. It
is inherent in the nature of the motor.
• Listing a set of improvements is not explaining.
 Using an equation to explain is not correct, e.g. “Increasing the current increases the
torque because τ = nBIA.”
- 1 mark: correct plotting of points
- 1 mark: appropriate line of best fit
- 1 mark: axis labels/title
- 1 mark: identifying that no current flows through the plates/some other comprehension
of the problem
- 1 mark: calculating the current through the resistors
- 1 mark: calculating the voltage
A current carrying wire will experience a force inside a magnetic field. Explain this phenomenon in
terms of the effects on specific particles.
3 marks

- 1 mark: identifying that a current consists of many individual moving charges

- 2 marks: linking the force on these charges to the force on the wire
A wire carrying an AC current is placed inside a magnetic field. Briefly explain the behaviour you
expect the wire to exhibit.
2 marks
What is an ampere, as defined by the International System of Units?
1 mark

A student places a wire in a magnetic field and passes a current of 2A through it. The student can’t
measure any force on the wire due to the motor effect. What is the likely cause of this?
1 mark
Two coils are placed close to one another on a test bench. The first coil is connected to a large DC
power supply and the second is connected to an ammeter. Explain what will be observed on the
ammeter when the DC power supply is switched on.
3 marks
- The ammeter will briefly show a reading the moment the supply is switched on. When the
current starts flowing through the first coil, it starts producing a magnetic field. In the
brief time it takes to establish this field, the second coil experiences a changing magnetic
flux, which produces an emf and a current by EM induction. The ammeter thus shows a
reading. Once the field is established, the flux experienced by the second coil is constant,
so no current flows.

- 1 mark: correct behaviour

- 1 mark: identifying that the first coil produces a magnetic field
- 1 mark: explaining how the brief change in flux induces a current
 - 1 mark: calculating the power input to the transformer
- 1 mark: converting the power consumption to a total energy requirement
- 1 mark: correct answer
Explain the link between Lenz’s law and the conservation of energy.
3 marks

 Lenz’s law states that all induced emfs act to form magnetic fields which oppose the
change that created them. This ensures that no energy is created by electromagnetic
induction, only transformed, thus maintaining the conservation of energy.
 If the induced emfs ‘supported’ the change, then the process would be self-perpetuating.
 For example, if a current was induced in a coil by moving a magnet towards it, the induced
current would attract the magnet further, creating more change in flux and thus more
current, in a perpetual cycle that creates energy.
 This is impossible and Lenz’s law guarantees that it doesn’t occur and that energy is
conserved.

A student drops a magnet through the opening of a coil connected to a light bulb. The student
observes the light bulb illuminate as the magnet passes through the coil.
Describe the energy transformations taking place in this scenario and propose two changes the
student could make to the experimental design to make the light bulb glow more brightly.
5 marks

 When the magnet is released, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy by

gravity. Some of this kinetic energy is converted to electrical energy via induction.
This is converted into light energy by the light bulb, and also into heat energy,
due to the resistance of the coil and connected circuit.
Improvements:
 Drop the magnet from higher above the coil. This will increase the rate of change
of magnetic flux as the magnet is moving more quickly.
 Use a stronger magnet, which will increase the rate of change of magnetic flux,
since the field used is stronger.
a. Pin = VI = 240(0.5) = 120 W
Pout = VI = 12(6.6) = 79.2 W
79.2
Efficiency = =66 %
120

b.
- Eddy currents
o Form in the core of a transformer, induced by the changing flux it carries.
o These are reduced by using insulative laminations in the core, which reduce the
size of eddy currents without affecting the permeability of the core.
- Incomplete flux linkage
o Not all flux generated by the primary coil reaches the secondary coil.
o Flux leakage is reduced by using a highly permeable, minimally coercive material
in the core.
- Excess heat:
o Excess heat causes power loss, which is why transformers are fitted with oil or
water-based cooling systems
 - 1 mark: understanding that a constant current is induced when the flux is changing
- 1 mark: correct calculations
- 1 mark: correct graph, with correct directions

Draw a diagram of a simple DC motor, labelling significant parts. Describe the function fulfilled by
each of these components.
5 marks
 - The stator provides the magnetic field. The coil carries the current which interacts with
this field via the motor effect to produce forces and a torque. The split ring commutator
reverses the direction of the input current every half turn, to maintain a constant
direction of torque and thus keep the motor spinning.
- 2 marks: diagram, showing the three significant parts of the motor
- 2 marks: correct descriptions of what these parts does
- 1 mark: fulfilling both of the above without any errors

Compare and contrast the structure and purpose of simple motors and generators.
3 marks
 - Motors and generators have near identical structures but serve the opposite purpose.
Both consist of a rotating coil in a magnetic field, connected to an external circuit via a
split ring commutator or slip rings.
- A motor converts electrical energy from the circuit into mechanism energy via the motor
effect,
- while generators take mechanical energy and convert it into electrical energy for the
circuit, via EM induction.

With reference to appropriate Physics principles, explain how an AC induction motor operates.
6 marks

- An AC induction motor consists of pairs of electromagnets around a conductive rotor.

- The electromagnets are switched on and off in sequence around the rotor, generating a
rotating magnetic field (or equivalent labelled diagram).
- The rotor experiences a changing magnetic flux and currents form by EM induction
(Faraday’s law).
- Lenz’s law states that these currents generate their own field to oppose the change that
created them.
- In this context, this also causes the rotor to rotate, ‘chasing’ the rotating field.
- Controlling the motor is done by changing the intensity of the field and the speed at which
it rotates. Otherwise, the AC induction motor operates at the frequency of AC power
 supply.

a) When current flows from P to Q, the force on the magnet is downwards as the reading on
the balance increases. Given the perpendicular relationship between the direciton of the
magnetic field, current and force, the magnetic field lines are directed away from pole X,
making it the north pole of the magnet.

b) Force on the rod is calculated using balance reading:

F = mg = 2.69(10-3)(9.8) = 0.026 N
Magnetic field strength is calculated using F= BILsinθ:
F 0.026362
B= = =0.24 T (2 sf )
ILsinθ sin 90 (3.2)(0.0345)
Magnetic braking has advantages over conventional friction braking. However, the conservation
of energy applies to both.
Describe how magnetic braking works and how the conservation of energy applies.
6 marks
  Magnetic braking utilises a strong source of a magnetic field (i.e. electromagnets) to
induce eddy currents.
 One application is the electromagnets being placed either side of a spinning metal disc.
The disc is a part of a rotating axle on a vehicle such as a train or car.
 As an area of the disc comes towards the electromagnets, induced eddy currents due to
the increasing flux through the disc flow in such a direction such that the magnetic field
they generate opposes the magnetic field from the electromagnets.
 As the same area of the disc moves away from the electromagnets, the eddy currents
reverse and the magnetic fields attract. In both ways, the force on the disc opposes its
rotation.
 Complying with the conservation of energy, the eddy currents produce heat due to
heating in the disc.
 This heating comes from a loss of kinetic energy from the wheels. This heat can be
dissipated more easily than in friction brakes as there is nothing in physical contact with
the disc to hinder this.
The path followed by a positive ion entering a uniform magnetic field is shown in the figure below.

Positive ions travelling with the same velocity enter a uniform magnetic field initially at right
angles to the field.
a) If two of the ions have equal masses but different charges, identify whether the ion with a
smaller or larger positive charge will move in a path with a larger radius. Justify your
identification.
3

b) If a positive ion is travelling with a velocity of 5.0 x 10 7 m s-1 and the magnetic field is of
intensity 3.5 x 10-3 T, determine the magnitude of the force per unit charge acting on the
 ion.
2

a) The force on a particle with charge q, enetering the magnetic field B with a velocity v is
determined by F= Bqv. But if the charge is doubled, then the force becomes F=2Bqv.
Since both charges have a common velocity at entry into the magnetic field, the force on
mv 2
the ion with the larger charge is twice as big. This force F c = is applied on the
r
charged ions giving them a centripetal-like motion as it is applied at 90 degrees to the
velocity direction at any time.
If the centripetal force experienced by the ion with the larger charged particle is doubled
(yet the mass is almost constant for both ions as electron has only a small mass) and since
the velocities are kept constant, the radius of the motion must be halved. Hence, the ion
with the larger charge will have the smaller radius motion in the magnetic field.
F −3 −1
=Bv=5∗10 ( 3.5 ) ( 10 )=175000 N C
7
b)
q
Compare the effects of electric and magnetic fields on a charged particle if the particle is initially
moving perpendicular to the fields. Support your answer with a labelled diagram showing each
field.
4 marks

- Both electric and magnetic fields exert force on a charged particle.

- The difference between the effect that electric and magnetic fields have on a charged
particle has to do with the particle’s trajectory.
- An electric field exerts a force on a charged particle that is directed in the same direction
as the field.
- A magnetic field exerts a force moving across the field, so the force will be directed
perpendicularly to the field and the velocity of the charged particle.
 - This will result in the direct trajectories; an electric field will produce a parabolic
trajectory, whereas a magnetic field will produce a circular trajectory. This is shown in the
following diagrams.

force of repulsion=mg=0.06 ( 10−3 ) ( 9.8 )=5.88∗10−4 N

F μ0 I 1 I 2
=
l 2π r
,I =
√
F ( 2 πr )
l( μ 0)
Since the current is the same for both conductors, the magnitude of the current will be:

√
−4 −3
5.88 (10 ) ( 2 π ) (5.00)(10 )
I= −2 −7
=7.12 A
29.0(10 )( 4 π)( 10 )
Assess the use of models in physics. In your answer, refer to the ideal transformer model and ONE
other model.
6 marks
 Physics seeks to provide an accurate understanding of how the Universe works. Models
help us to do this by allowing us to predict the outcome of specific situations. For
example, the ideal transformer model allows us to predict the voltage supplied to the
secondary circuit given the primary voltage and the number of turns in the coils.
 Similarly, Newton’s equations of motion allow us to predict the maximum height, time of
flight, range and final velocity of a projectile.
 However, models will often sacrifice accuracy for simpicity.
 The secdonary voltage in a transformer is less than what the ideal transformer model
rpedicts because no allowance is made for resistive heat production.
 Also, when Newton’s equations of motion are used to predict a projectile’s trajectory, it is
assumed that air resistance is zero, which it is usually not.
 Therefore, moels are very useful in helping us to understand the real world as long as we
understand the limitations of the models we are using.
 Mod 7

Q7
Discuss how the characteristics of distant stars can be determined by analysing their
electromagnetic spectrum.
8 marks

Key features of stellar spectra are indicative of key characteristics.

 The surface temperature of a star is linked to the characteristic wavelength of its
spectrum
b
 by Wein’s Law, λ max= .
T
 The translational/rotational motion of a star can be inferred from any red/blue shift in its
spectrum.
 The Doppler Effect causes blue shift for things moving towards us, and red shift for things
moving away, so the motion of a star can be calculated from these frequency shifts.
 The chemical composition of the star can be determined based on the location of the
spectral lines,
 since these lines are dependent on the emission/absorption spectra of the elements in
the star.
 The density of a star is also linked to these spectral lines, but to their strength/width.
 The denser the star, the more of the element there will be, so the stronger its spectral
lines will be.
Q6
In the 17th century, Isaac Newton and Christiaan Huygens proposed conflicting theories for the
nature of light. Explain the evidence supporting each theory, and explain why one eventually
prevailed.
8 marks
  Newton proposed a particle model of light
 while Huygen’s proposed a wave model.
 Newton’s particle model was supported because light didn’t appear to require a medium,
and waves were thought to need a medium to propagate through.
 Light also travels in straight lines, which is easily explainable with a particle model.
 Newton was also able to explain behaviour we typically associate with waves (like
reflection) with his model.
 The evidence for Huygen’s model included the partial reflection/refraction of light
crossing a boundary, a behaviour which is exhibited by mechanical waves.
 The double slit experiment became the reason why the wave model prevailed. A particle
model couldn’t explain the observed interference patterns, which are easily explainable
with a wave model.
 Thus, Huygen’s model prevailed over Newton’s
Q7
Explain how the inability of the wave model of light to explain certain phenomena led to the
development of quantum physics.
9 marks
  The wave model of light was unable to explain the ultraviolet catastrophe.
 The classical wave model predicted that the intensity of black body radiation would tend
to infinity at high frequencies,
 violating the conservation of energy.
 Planck resolved this by considering that radiation was only emitted in discrete packets,
called ‘quanta’,
 each with energy E=hf. Associating these quanta with energy differences in atoms
resolved the catastrophe.
 The theory was expanded on by Einstein in his particle model of light, which was proposed
to explain the photoelectric effect.
 The emission of photoelectrons from metals, and the dependence of their kinetic energy
on frequency rather than intensity of the radiation, violated the classical wave model.
 By considering energy per photon as E=hf and that each electron gained its energy from a
single photon, the effect could be explained.
 Einstein and Planck’s work with quanta as the basis for quantum physics.
Q34
Outline the contribution of James Maxwell to our understanding of the nature of light and
describe the experimental evidence found afterwards that supported Maxwell’s theory.
6 marks

 Maxwell predicted the existence of EM waves by combining the work of Faraday and
Oersted, deducing that a moving charge would induce a changing electric field which
would induce a changing magnetic field, inducing a changing electric field and so on
(diagram encouraged).
 Hertz proved the existence of EM waves using radio waves (diagram encouraged)
 Maxwell then combined the work of Oersted and Faraday to derive the speed of EM
 1
waves (c= ), which was equal to the speed of light which had been experimentally
√ μ0 ε 0
measured, thus predicting that light was an electromagnetic wave.
 Hertz confirmed the speed of EM waves experimentally. Hertz used c=fλ , to find
8 −1 1
c=3∗10 m s = .
√ μ 0 ε0
 Maxwell predicted that light was part of a spectrum of EM waves with different
wavelengths and frequencies but same speed in a vacuum.
 Hertz then confirmed this through his experiments with radio waves being an example of
an EM wave with a different wavelength to light.
Question 30 (9 marks)
Explain how new evidence over time necessitated change in the model of light.
9 marks

• Isaac Newton’s particle model of light described light made of corpuscles which varied in
size depending on the colour of the light.
• In the 18th century, Young’s double slit experiment showed that light diffracts when
passing through a slit. This was evident in the interference patterns produce which are
consistent with wave nature.
• This supported a wave model of light and thus Newton’s particle model was replaced
with the classical wave model.
• In the 19th century the photo-electric effect was observed and was not explainable using
the classical model of light. The photo-electric effect is the emission of electrons from a
metal when light above a certain frequency is incident upon the metal.
• A classical model would suggest that intensity, not frequency, is relate to electron
ejection. Also, electron emission was almost spontaneous, where the classical wave
model would predict that emission should occur after some time so as to allow energy to
build up.
• In 1905, Albert Einstein was able to explain the photo-electric effect by using a particle
model of light, where light was made up of packets of energy called photons.
• These photons would collide with electrons and would eject the electrons if they
possessed enough energy, where energy is proportional to frequency (E=hf).
• The new evidence supported the particle model of light but since a wave model was
 appropriate to describe other light phenomenon, such as diffraction, a new particle-wave
model was adopted. This model indicates that light can behave as both a particle and a
wave depending on the scenario.
• Thus, over time the emergence of new evidence regarding the nature of light has forced
the scientific community to continually reassess the model of light.
Discuss the radiation emitted by hot bodies at specific temperatures and how this relates to the
stars.
Illustrate your answer with a fully labelled graphical diagram.
4 marks

- Dominant wavelength of radiation is lower temperature increases.

- Stars are near ideal black bodies [or similar informative statement relevant to radiation
from stars and black body radiation]
- 2 marks for correct graph:
Outline a procedure that could be used to perform an investigation in a school laboratory to verify
Malus’s Law.
Include any relevant diagrams.
5 marks
Malus’s Law states that the intensity of polarised light, I o, after it has passed through another

polarising filter where the angles between the two polarisers is θ becomes .A
procedure that verifies this relationship is:
1. Obtain a source of polarised light – e.g. a laptop screen with a blank, white
page.
2. Use a piece of polarised material and check the orientation of the source light
so that maximum light passes through.
3. Using sticky tape, attach the polarising material so that it covers the light
sensor on the front of a smartphone.
4. Install Physics Toolbox Suite (or similar) that can record the inclination of the
phone and the light intensity.
5. Holding the phone at a constant distance from the polarised light source,
record the illuminance (light intensity) as the phone’s inclination is varied
from 0° through to 90° from the polarised light source.
6. Record the results in a table, with 2 extra columns for cosθ and then cos 2θ.
7. Plot the light intensity, I, against the square of cosθ (i.e. cos 2θ). The gradient
of the line of best fit is a value of the original light intensity, I o.
(Appropriate diagram or sketch of phone with polarised material, laptop and inclination angle θ
should be included).

Analyse how atomic clocks have been able to verify time dilation as described by Einstein.
3 marks

- In 1971, a physicist Joseph Hafele and an astronomer, Richard Keating devised an

 investigation whereby atomic clocks were flown in commercial aircraft around the world,
some from east to west, others west to east. Another set of atomic clocks remained on
the ground.
- Such clocks are accurate to within several billionths of a second.
- Despite the relatively slow speeds of the aircraft, the clocks flown disagreed with the
stationary clocks when they were compared. Taking into account both the more complex
general relativity effects and the special relativity effects, the amount of disagreement
between the clocks matched that predicted, within experimental error.

Early scientists made exhaustive efforts to accurately measure the speed of light. Explain how it is
that now, the speed of light is used to define the measure of distance.
3 marks

- The speed of light in a vacuum has a fixed velocity, from which all observers can define
their own length scale.
- This means that there is no need to measure the speed of light because it is defined.
- If the velocity is known, then the distance that light travels in a specific period of time is a
known distance. The metre is a unit of length defined by how far light travels in a
well-defined period of time.
Discuss ONE historical and ONE contemporary method used to determine the speed of light.
4 marks
- In the early 1600s, Galileo attempted to discover the speed of light. He stood on a hilltop
and had an assistant stand on a separate hilltop, having measured the distance between
the two hills. Both participants had a lamp, and Galileo also had a timepiece. Galileo
uncovered his lamp and began to keep time; when his assistant saw the light from
Galileo’s lamp, they uncovered their lamp. Galileo recorded the time until he saw the light
from his assistant’s lamp.
- By doing so, he was able to determine that the speed of light was ten times greater than
the speed of sound.
- Foucault improved the calculation of the speed of light by using a similar apparatus to
that used in Fizeau’s method. Foucault shone a bright light through a rotating mirror that
would block the light’s path. Foucault observed the light hitting a plane surface 8 km away
from the rotating mirror and was able to determine the speed of light based on the speed
of rotation of the mirror, which periodically blocked the light from hitting the observed
surface.
- His method determined the speed of light to be 298 000 kms -1.
 Mod 8

Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, and Louis de Broglie made inspired guesses about how
nature works.
‘The limitations of classical physics gave birth to Quantum Physics.’
With reference to TWO of these scientists, discuss TWO theories and ONE piece of evidence for
this statement.
6 marks

The failure of classical Physics to adequately explain blackbody radiation, the

photoelectric effect and the hydrogen atom ultimately demolished the foundations of
classical Physics.
 Max Planck explained the deviation of experiment to classical prediction for blackbody
radiation. This is known as the UV catastrophe.
 He stated that the energy of electrons comes in clumps – he named a clump of energy a
quantum.
 Louis de Broglie
 proposed that wave-particle duality not only applied to light (as described by Einstein) but
to everything in nature. De Broglie rewrote Einstein’s equation.
 The evidence that electrons propagate like a wave came when electrons were passed
through a double slit and counted as they hit a screen. If the electrons travelled like a
stream of particles, they would have simply piled up at two locations behind the two slits.
But they didn't. They showed a double-slit interference pattern, bright bands and dark
bands just like the ones produced by light waves. OR
 Davisson and Germer experimentally confirmed de Broglie’s prediction in 1927 when they
bombarded the surface of a piece of nickel with electrons which were then scattered and
detected by a moveable electron detector. They found the electrons were interfering with
one another to produce a diffraction pattern. This evidence was ground-breaking in that it
showed the limitations of classical physics in describing the nature of moving particles.
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram below is incomplete.
a) On the diagram, outline the area referred to as the Main Sequence.
1 mark
b) Identify the type of star represented as “cool, bright”.
1 mark
c) Discuss use of colour to label the horizontal axis instead of temperature.
2 marks
a)

b) Red Giants
c) Temperature determines dominant wavelength and hence colour.
High temperature (left side of the graph) can be labelled as blue or blue-white.
 Low temperature (right side of graph) can be labelled as red.
The absorption spectral lines for both our nearest galaxy Andromeda and a distant galaxy are
shown in the absorption spectra below.

The graph below is often seen in astronomy.

Explain how both the absorption spectra and the graph can be used to support the Big Bang
theory of an expanding universe.

5 marks

- The shift in the wavelengths of the absorption spectral lines towards the red end of the
spectrum indicates
- the distant galaxy is moving away.
- From the v-d graph, it can be seen that the further away the galaxies are, the faster they
are receding away
- which indicates that the universe is expanding.
- By reversing this expansion trend, a singularity is obtained, which implies that this
expansion started from a point.
With reference to the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, describe the life-cycle of a star like the Sun.
4 marks

- Main sequence  Red Giant  White dwarf (3 marks)

- A labelled diagram

The graph below compares the kinetic energy of alpha decay in platinum-190 and beta decay in
cobalt-60 particles with respect to the relative number of decay particles with these energies.

Account for the differences in energies of these alpha and beta radioactive decay particles.
7 marks

- Radioactive decay is an exothermic process that produces energy according to the law of
conservation of mass-energy. Unstable nuclei release particles from the nucleus with a
kinetic energy associated with their mass and velocity (E=1/2 mv 2).
- Alpha particles are helium nuclei containing two protons and two neutrons, while the
beta particle shown on the graph is an electron.
 - Alpha particles, therefore, have about 7000 times the mass of electrons and, therefore,
significantly more kinetic energy. This feature is shown on the graph with alpha particles
having much more kinetic energy than even the maximum kinetic energy of the beta
particles.
- The other difference shown on the graph also relates to kinetic energy. All alpha particles
are emitted with the same kinetic energy while beta particles are shown to have a range
of kinetic energies.
- Every alpha emission produces the same helium nucleus with the same mass and speed,
shown by a single vertical line on the graph indicating that all alpha particles are emitted
with the same kinetic energy.
- In beta decay, two particles are produced: an electron and an antineutrino. While the
antineutrino has an imperceptibly small mass compared with the electron, these particles
are emitted at significant speeds. In each decay, the energy released from the nucleus as
lost mass is the same, however, the kinetic energy carried by the decay particles can be
apportioned differently.
- Since the graph shows only electrons (and not antineutrinos), a range of kinetic energies is
observed. If the graph were to show the combined energy of electrons and antineutrinos,
it would look the same as the line of alpha particles, however, the line would occur at a
much lower kinetic energy.
a) Assess the limitations of the Rutherford and Bohr atomic model.
6 marks
b) Rutherford and Bohr’s model of the atom is sometime referred to as ‘classical physics’.
Explain why Schrodinger’s quantum mechanics improved our understanding of the model
of the atom.
2 marks

a)
Rutherford’s model of the atom was superior in the beginning: however, it has many limitations,
including:
- An inability to explain the nucleus:
- An uncertainty on how to place the electrons around the dense region that is now known
as the nucleus, and;
- An uncertainty on why the electrons orbiting the nucleus did not slow down and crash
into each other

Later, Niels Bohr created a model of the atom that improved Rutherford’s model. Overtime,
Bohr’s model of the atom also had limitations which include:
 - An inability to predict the spectra of multi-electron atoms, and;
- An inability to explain the different intensities of lines or why some lines split into
multiple, closely spaced lines.
b)
- Schrodinger’s model of the atom was developed mathematically and the equations that
he used could explain the probability or the certainty of a quantum event or quantum
position in quantum mechanics.
- This improved the model of the atom from Bohr’s model, as Schrodinger identified that
the electrons were orbiting the nucleus within probability clouds and not fixed positions
within the shell.
Describe one experiment conducted by a scientist that provided support for the existence of the
electron and its properties.
3 marks

- Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom using cathode ray tubes.
- Thomson’s charge-to-mass ratio experiment
- Millikan’s oil drop experiment
- Eg
- Robert Millikan created an oil drop experiment to measure the charge of the electron.
- Millikan’s apparatus comprised two metal electric plates within a container of water.
Millikan sprayed oil drops within the container of water and applied a potential difference
between the two plates to suspend the oil between them.
- This meant that the oil drop was balanced between the electrostatic and gravitational
forces, and from this Millikan used qE = mg to determine that the charge on a drop was a
multiple of 1.6 x 1019 C.
Outline the roles played by the four fundamental forces of nature and identify their respective
bosons.
6 marks
 - Gravitational force – acts over large distances between objects with mass, governed by

. Mediated by the hypothesized graviton.

- Electromagnetic force – forces between charged particles and between magnets, as well
as the force on moving charges within a magnetic field. Mediated by the photon.
- Strong nuclear force: attractive force between nucleons (protons and neutrons) over very
short distances that overcomes the electromagnetic force between protons in nuclei.
Mediated by the gluon.
- Weak nuclear force: the force between nucleons, again acting only over very short
distances such as those between these particles, responsible for beta decay. Mediated by
the intermediate vector bosons (W and Z bosons).

Explain how the properties of stars can be determined from their spectra.
6 marks
  Composition
o Absorption spectrum: When white light is passed through a gas, specific discrete
wavelengths of light are absorbed depending on the composition of the gas. Each
element has a specific pattern of spectra lines (wavelengths of light that are
absorbed) and if this pattern is found in the spectrum of the star, then the surface
of the star contains that element.
 Surface temperature
o Blackbody radiation: Objects emit a continuous spectrum of light that depends on
the temperature of the object. The wavelength where the peak intensity occurs
can be used to calculate the surface temperature of the object (Wien’s law
b
T= ). Stars are close to ideal blackbody radiators and by matching their
λmax
spectra to a blackbody their surface temperature can be determined. (Surface
temperature can also be determined by spectral class – the Relative intensity of
spectral lines can also be used based on the ionisation the elements at the stars
surface)
 Surface density:
o Spectral line broadening: Stars with a higher density exhibit spectral broadening
where the width (range of wavelengths) of absorption spectral lines is increased
 Radial velocity:
o Doppler effect: When light is emitted from a moving object then the frequency of
the light is shifted. (the velocity is always constant according to Einstein’s 2nd
postulate). An approaching object emitting light is catching up to the light that it is
emitting so the distance between waves is shorter (shorter wavelength, higher
frequency means the light is shifted towards the blue). Conversely a receding
object’s light will be red-shifted. The amount of shift can be used to find the
objects velocity. Spectral lines occur at fixed wavelengths, so if a characteristic
pattern is found to be shifted from where it should be then the objects radial
velocity can be determined
 Rotational velocity
o Spectral line broadening: A rotating star will blue-shift the light from the side that
is approaching and red-shift the light from the side receding. This has the effect of
broadening the range of wavelengths that a spectral line will be measured. If light
can be sampled from either side independently, then this is an easier
measurement.
 Comprehensive and concise explanation of at least 4 properties
Question 6
Explain two nucleosynthesis reactions which produce energy in stars.
8 marks
Proton-proton chain:
o Proton-proton chain reactions involve the fusion of protons.
o 2 marks: Two protons fuse into deuterium, and a third then fuses to form He-3.
Combining two He-3 isotopes into He-4 releases two proteins, and the reaction
continues. This fusion reaction process releases energy and is common in smaller
stars. (or equations)

CNO cycle
o Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen reactions are more common in larger stars.
o 2 marks: A carbon-12 isotope fuses with two protons to yield Nitrogen-14.
Nitrogen-14 then fuses with two more protons, briefly forming oxygen which
quickly decays to a helium nucleus and carbon-12, with which the process
repeats. (or equations)
o For both of these reactions, the fusion of lighter elements into heavier ones
releases energy from the excess binding energy of the reactants.
o Larger and hotter stars are able to fuse the helium products of these reactions
into carbon via the triple alpha process, and carbon into even heavier elements.
Analyse the evidence that led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe.
9 marks

 Analysis of the ratio of light elements in the early universe, led scientists to conclude
that H:He were formed in a 3:1 ratio
  Which George Gamow was able to explain using an expanding universe model.
 Hubble observed the stellar spectra of spiral nebulae.
 Using luminosity-distance relationships, he found that the further away a galaxy was,
the more red-shifted its spectral lines were, due to an optical doppler effect.
 This red-shifting occurred because these galaxies were receding from the observer,
with a larger red-shift indicating a faster recession velocity. This was only possible if
the universe was expanding.
 Additionally, Penzias and Wilson discovered cosmic microwave background radiation
(CMBR).
 CMBR is a remnant of the photon decoupling era that occurred during the formation
of the early universe
 and thus would not be present in a steady state or static universe model.
 Therefore, the combination of the evidence outlined above helped Hubble discover
the expansion of the Universe.
Explain how stars are responsible for forming most of the elements on the periodic table.
8 marks

 New elements are formed through nuclear fusion reactions

 in a process called nucleosynthesis.
 During their lives on the main sequence, stars like the Sun form helium.
 Stars like the Sun form helium from hydrogen via a process called the proton-proton
chain)
 whereas stars with 1.3 times the mass of the Sun form helium from hydrogen via a faster
process called the Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle.
 When main sequence stars become a red giant they form elements like carbon, nitrogen
and oxygen.
 Larger stars form elements up to iron while they are giants.
 Elements heavier than iron are formed when giant stars explode as a supernova.
Explain the significance of the Geiger-Marsden experiment.
8 marks
  Diagram
 Explanation of diagram: alpha particles were fired at a thin sheet of gold foil. These alpha
particles were detected after passing through the gold foil.
 2 observations: most alpha particles pass through undeflected. Very few particles
(1/8000) deflect through angles of greater than 90 degrees.
 These observations could not be explained by Thomson’s plum pudding model of the
atom (+ explain plum pudding model of atom)
 2 inferences: the atom is made of mostly empty space. Most of the mass of the atom is
located at the centre of the atom, in a small, dense and positively charged sphere
 Significance: GM experiment helped Rutherford create a new model of the atom, called
the planetary model of the atom. This was an improvement upon the previous model of
the atom by Thomson.

Analyse Chadwick’s contributions to the model of the atom.

6 marks
  Contributions: Chadwick discovered the neutron and changed the model of the atom so
that the nucleus of atoms contained neutrons and protons.
 This is more detailed than the previous model of the atom, which said that the nucleus
was positively charged.
 Diagram of experimental set up
 Explanation of method: alpha particles bombarded Beryllium and ejected an unknown
radiation that was highly penetrating. This unknown radiation bombarded paraffin wax
and ejected protons which could be detected.
 Explanation of the role of conservation of energy (with numbers)
 Explanation of the role of conservation of momentum
“Scientific progress typically builds on the successes and limitations of previous ideas”
Discuss this statement with reference to the work of Rutherford, Bohr and de Broglie in furthering
our understanding of atomic structure.
9 marks
  Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiments led him to propose that the mass of the atom
was concentrated in a central small, dense and positively charged nucleus. Most of the
rest of the atom was empty space, with negative electrons orbiting the nucleus in circular
orbits.
 Rutherford’s model successfully explained the alpha scattering data and was thus an
improvement of JJ Thompson’s ‘Plum pudding’ model, which lacked a central nucleus.
 However, it did not explain the hydrogen emission spectral lines, nor did it explain why
the electrons did not spiral into the nucleus, emitting EMR as they did so, thus leading to
the collapse of the atom.
 Bohr built on Rutherford’s ideas, by keeping the concept of a positive nucleus surrounded
by orbiting electrons. He said electrons existed in stationary states where they are able to
orbit the nucleus without emitting EMR.
 He also explained the hydrogen spectral lines were due to electrons dropping from a
higher stationary state to a lower one.
 However, it lacked a mechanism for explaining why the stationary states existed.
 De Broglie was able to explain why Bohr’s stationary states existed. To do this, he
h
considered the electron as a wave (and his equation of λ= assigned electrons a tiny
mv
yet measurable wavelength), and not just as a particle. This led to the wave-particle
model for matter.
 In de Broglie’s model, the electrons formed standing waves in their orbits, and as standing
waves, they did not radiate energy, thus remaining stable.
 Direct experimental evidence for de Broglie’s ideas came from Davisson and Germer who
observed electron diffraction, which is a defining property of waves.
Use a model to explain the process of nuclear fission and apply the concept of nuclear fission to
controlled and uncontrolled chain reactions.
9 marks
  Define nuclear fission: the splitting of a larger nuclei into two or more smaller daughter
nuclei
 Accompanied by the release of energy by E=mc 2
 References a model: water droplet model

 Uncontrolled chain reaction:

o Neutron instigates nuclear fission, creating 3 more neutrons which each go on to
instigate their own fission events at an exponential rate.
o Large and often uncontrollable amounts of energy is released in the process much
like in atomic bombs
 Controlled chain reaction
o One neutron instigates one fission event each time
o Energy is created and can be harnessed in nuclear reactors
o Control rods made of cadmium and boron are used to absorb excess neutrons
o Moderators such as heavy water and lead are used to slow neutrons to thermal
speeds so that fission may be more efficiency instigated
 At least one nuclear equation
 At least one diagram
Explain the standard model of matter, with reference to the various classifications of fundamental
particles.
9 marks
  The SM consists of two main groups of particles – fermions and bosons.
 Fermions are the building blocks of matter.
 Some (quarks) must bind together to form particles called hadrons (including protons
and neutrons).
 Others, the leptons, can exist by themselves, such as the electron, muon, tau and
neutrino particles. All of these fermions have mass and constitute our comprehension
of “matter”.
 Bosons, instead, are “carrier” particles which interact with fermions to dictate
fundamental forces of nature.
 There are two types of bosons:
 there are four vector bosons; the photon, gluon, W and Z bosons.
 These dictate the electromagnetic strong nuclear and weak nuclear forces – which are
all vector quantities.
 There is one scalar boson, the Higgs Boson – which interacts with fermions to give
them their mass. These are the classifications in the SM.
Explain the debate that surrounded the nature of cathode rays.
8 marks
  The essence of the debate was disagreement over the nature of cathode rays and
whether they were waves or particles.
 3 pieces of evidence for waves
 3 pieces of evidence for particles
 The debate was eventually settled when Thomson showed that cathode rays could be
deflected by electric fields, confirming that cathode rays are negatively charged particles.
Explain de Broglie’s contribution to the model of the atom and the experimental evidence that
supported him.
7 marks

 Matter wave hypothesis: moving particles have a wave-like nature

 Matter wave equation
 Significance of matter wave hypothesis: explained stable stationary states in Bohr’s model
of the atom which do not radiate energy (reference to Bohr’s first postulate)
 Constructive interference creates standing waves which are stationary states where
energy is not being emitted
 Only circumferences that were integer multiples of the wavelength of the electron could
form these stationary states (equation or diagram)
  Derivation of quantised angular momentum expression from Bohr’s postulates

Experimental evidence:
 Davisson and Germer experiment or x-ray diffraction patterns
Analyse the evidence that suggests that there are other subatomic particles aside from protons,
neutrons and electrons.
6 marks

 2 marks each: observation + conclusion

 Beta decay: electron neutrinos were discovered after analysing the kinetic energy of beta
particles
 Neutrons, although neutral, have a magnetic moment, which suggests that they are
composed of smaller subatomic particles that are charged.
 Deep inelastic scattering experiments showed that protons and neutrons deflected
electrons as if there were three point sources of mass within them.
 Other things to mention:
o Cosmic ray experiments led to the discovery of the muon, mesons, kaon and
lambda
o The role of particle accelerators: studied high-energy collisions caused the
discovery of new hadrons
Using examples, analyse the role of particle accelerators in validating theories. Reference the
Standard Model of matter in your answer.
9 marks
  Particle accelerators collide particles and identify all the products and measure their
properties such as mass, charge, energy and momentum.
 Particle accelerators have been used to discover many new particles and interactions that
theorists have had to explain. The predictions of these new theories can then be tested
using accelerators and colliders.
 For example, the electroweak theory predicted the existence and properties of the W and
Z bosons, which were later confirmed experimentally in accelerators. These bosons now
compose the SMM.
 Additionally, the Higgs Boson was predicted to be the boson responsible for the mass of
elementary particles in the 20th century. The Higgs Boson was finally discovered in 2012
via the use of the Large Hadron Collider, which is a synchrotron particle accelerator. The
Higgs Boson is now integral to the SMM.
 Energies at which collisions occur can also give clues about the particles produced as the
mass of the particles produced can never exceed the mass equivalent (m=E/c 2) of the
energy put into the collision.
 For example, the second and third generation quarks in the SM had significantly larger
masses than first generation quarks and were not available to be studied in nature.
 Thus, particle accelerators were necessary to create collisions with enough energy to
create and validate the existence of these heavier elementary particles, via E=mc 2, so that
they may be included in the SMM.
 Particle accelerators are also integral in supporting the idea that protons and neutrons are
not fundamental particles found in the SMM. In 1969, inelastic scattering experiments
between electrons and protons conducted using high-energy particle accelerators
indicated there were tiny, scattering centres inside protons, which supported the
existence of smaller, fundamental particles which made up the SMM. (These experiments
were in some ways analogous to the early scattering experiments conducted by
Rutherford that implied the existence of the nucleus.)
 Thus, particle accelerators are key in validating theories, such as the SMM.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world’s largest particle accelerator, operated by the
European Organisation for Nuclear Research.
a) Describe the physics principles involved in the operation of particle accelerators like the
LHC.
4 marks
b) What evidence have particle accelerators like the LHC contributed to the standard model
of matter?
4 marks
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world’s largest particle accelerator, operated by the
European Organisation for Nuclear Research.
a) Describe the physics principles involved in the operation of particle accelerators like the
LHC.
4 marks
 Diagram:

 Particle accelerators are designed to induce and observe high-speed particle

interactions.
 A synchrotron uses electric fields to accelerate charged particles in a linear
accelerator.
 The beam is then sent into a booster ring to increase in speed before being sent into
the storage ring.
 Magnetic fields are used to deflect particles so that they undergo circular cyclic
motion at a fixed radius.
b) What evidence have particle accelerators like the LHC contributed to the standard model
of matter?
4 marks
 Particle accelerators have contributed the majority of the experimental evidence for
the SM, as many aspects of the model are only observable in very specific high energy
interactions.
 Accelerators confirm the behaviour of fundamental particles matches that predicted
by the standard model.
 Further, components of the model are discovered and verified using accelerators.
 The Higgs boson was first observed in the LHC in 2012, and many other fundamental
particles can only be studied using accelerators, thus highlighting their importance.