CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY OF
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Information Technology and Artificial Intelligence
Chapter 2:
Data Manipulation
Chapter 2: Data Manipulation
• 2.1 Computer Architecture
• 2.2 Machine Language
• 2.3 Program Execution
• 2.4 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
• 2.5 Communicating with Other Devices
• 2.6 Program Data Manipulation
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Computer Architecture
• Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor
• Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit
• Registers
• General purpose
• Special purpose
• Bus
• Motherboard
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Figure 2.1 CPU and main memory connected via
a bus
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Stored Program Concept
A program can be encoded as bit patterns and
stored in main memory. From there, the CPU can
then extract the instructions and execute them. In
turn, the program to be executed can be altered
easily.
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Terminology
• Machine instruction: An instruction (or
command) encoded as a bit pattern recognizable
by the CPU
• Machine language: The set of all instructions
recognized by a machine
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Machine Language Philosophies
• Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)
• Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions
• Examples: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola and
ARM
• Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)
• Many, convenient, and powerful instructions
• Example: Intel
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Machine Instruction Types
• Data Transfer: copy data from one location to another
• Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns to compute
a new bit patterns
• Control: direct the execution of the program
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Figure 2.2 Adding values stored in memory
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Figure 2.4 The architecture of the machine described in
Appendix C
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Parts of a Machine Instruction
• Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute
• Operand: Gives more detailed information about
the operation
• Interpretation of operand varies depending on op-
code
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Figure 2.5 The composition of an instruction
for the machine in Appendix C
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Figure 2.6 Decoding the instruction 35A7
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Figure 2.7 An encoded
version of the
instructions in Figure
2.2
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Program Execution
• Controlled by two special-purpose registers
• Program counter: address of next instruction
• Instruction register: current instruction
• Machine Cycle
• Fetch
• Decode
• Execute
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Figure 2.8 The machine cycle
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Figure 2.9 Decoding the instruction B258
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Figure 2.10 The program from Figure 2.7 stored in main memory ready for
execution
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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step of the machine cycle
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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step of the machine cycle
(continued)
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Arithmetic/Logic Operations
• Logic: AND, OR, XOR
• Masking
• Rotate and Shift: circular shift, logical shift,
arithmetic shift
• Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
• Precise action depends on how the values are encoded
(two’s complement versus floating-point).
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Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit pattern 65
(hexadecimal) one bit to the right
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Communicating with Other Devices
• Controller: An intermediary apparatus that handles
communication between the computer and a device
• Specialized controllers for each type of device
• General purpose controllers (USB and FireWire)
• Port: The point at which a device connects to a computer
• Memory-mapped I/O: CPU communicates with peripheral
devices as though they were memory cells
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Figure 2.13 Controllers attached to a machine’s bus
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Figure 2.14 A conceptual representation of memory-
mapped I/O
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Communicating with Other Devices (continued)
• Direct memory access (DMA): Main memory access by a
controller over the bus
• Von Neumann Bottleneck: Insufficient bus speed impedes
performance
• Handshaking: The process of coordinating the transfer of
data between components
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Communicating with Other Devices (continued)
• Parallel Communication: Several communication
paths transfer bits simultaneously.
• Serial Communication: Bits are transferred one
after the other over a single communication path.
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Data Communication Rates
• Measurement units
• Bps: Bits per second
• Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
• Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
• Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
• Bandwidth: Maximum available rate
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Programming Data Manipulation
• Programing languages shields users from details of
the machine:
• A single Python statement might map to one, tens, or
hundreds of machine instructions
• Programmer does not need to know if the processor is
RISC or CISC
• Assigning variables surely involves LOAD, STORE, and
MOVE op-codes
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Bitwise Problems as Python Code
print(bin(0b10011010 & 0b11001001))
# Prints '0b10001000'
print(bin(0b10011010 | 0b11001001))
# Prints '0b11011011'
print(bin(0b10011010 ^ 0b11001001))
# Prints '0b1010011'
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