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Deep Learning Concepts Explained

Deep Learning is an advanced branch of Machine Learning that utilizes Artificial Neural Networks to identify patterns in data through interconnected layers, mimicking human brain neurons. Key topics include basics of neural networks, convolutional and recurrent networks, natural language processing, advanced architectures, and various applications such as image processing and autonomous vehicles. The document also covers the differences between Machine Learning and Deep Learning, activation functions, loss functions, optimizers, and practical tools and frameworks.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
17 views24 pages

Deep Learning Concepts Explained

Deep Learning is an advanced branch of Machine Learning that utilizes Artificial Neural Networks to identify patterns in data through interconnected layers, mimicking human brain neurons. Key topics include basics of neural networks, convolutional and recurrent networks, natural language processing, advanced architectures, and various applications such as image processing and autonomous vehicles. The document also covers the differences between Machine Learning and Deep Learning, activation functions, loss functions, optimizers, and practical tools and frameworks.

Uploaded by

RajKumar
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Deep Learning (டீப் லெர்னிங்) na enna?

👉 Machine Learning ல ஒரு advanced branch தான் Deep Learning.


👉 இதுல Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) base ஆகும்.
👉 மனித மூளையின் (Human Brain) neurons மாதிரி interconnected layers use
பண்ணி data-ல pattern-கள், features-கள் கண்டுபிடிக்க செய்யும்.
👉 Mostly Image Processing, Speech Recognition, NLP (Natural Language
Processing), Autonomous Vehicles மாதிரி complex tasks-க்கு use ஆகுது.

Deep Learning ல முக்கியமான Topics (Levels ஆக புரியணும்):

Level 1 – Basics

 Difference between ML & DL


 What are Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
 Neuron, Weights, Bias, Activation Function
 Forward Propagation & Backpropagation
 Loss Functions (MSE, Cross Entropy etc.)
 Optimizers (SGD, Adam, RMSprop)

Level 2 – Neural Networks

 Perceptron & Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP)


 Activation Functions (Sigmoid, ReLU, Tanh, Softmax)
 Gradient Descent & Variants
 Regularization (Dropout, L1/L2, Batch Normalization)

Level 3 – Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)

 Convolution Layer, Pooling Layer, Fully Connected Layer


 CNN for Image Classification
 Object Detection (YOLO, R-CNN, Faster R-CNN)
 Image Segmentation (U-Net, Mask R-CNN)

Level 4 – Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)

 Sequential Data Processing


 RNN, Vanishing Gradient Problem
 LSTM (Long Short-Term Memory)
 GRU (Gated Recurrent Unit)
 Applications: Speech, Text, Time Series Prediction

Level 5 – Natural Language Processing (NLP) + Transformers

 Word Embeddings (Word2Vec, GloVe)


 Seq2Seq Models (Encoder-Decoder)
 Attention Mechanism
 Transformers (BERT, GPT, T5)
 Chatbots, Translation, Sentiment Analysis

Level 6 – Advanced Architectures

 GANs (Generative Adversarial Networks) → Image Generation


 Autoencoders & Variational Autoencoders (VAE)
 Reinforcement Learning + Deep Q-Learning
 Transfer Learning (using Pre-trained Models like VGG, ResNet, Inception)

Level 7 – Tools & Frameworks

 TensorFlow
 PyTorch
 Keras
 OpenCV (for Computer Vision tasks)
 Hugging Face (for NLP)

Level 8 – Applications

 Self-driving Cars
 Healthcare (Disease Prediction, X-ray/MRI Analysis)
 Finance (Fraud Detection, Algo Trading)
 Robotics
 Recommendation Systems (Netflix, YouTube, Amazon)

1) ML vs DL — வேறுபாடு (Difference)

 Machine Learning (ML)


o Human-உடன் feature engineering: model-க்கு input-ஆக தகவல்களை
நாம் தேர்ந்தெடுப்போம் (e.g., house area, rooms).
o Algorithms: Linear Regression, SVM, Random Forest, KNN.
o சிறந்தது: small-to-medium data; explainable models.
 Deep Learning (DL)
o Large neural networks (layers பண்றது) → model தான் raw data-
லிருந்து features கற்றுக் கொள்றது (representation learning).
o Algorithms: Neural Networks (CNN, RNN, Transformers).
o சிறந்தது: images, audio, raw text — ஆனால் data & compute (GPU)
அதிகம் தேவை.

Intuition: ML = "you choose features", DL = "model discovers features".


2) Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) என்ன?

 ANN = பல layers கொண்ட network: Input → Hidden layers → Output.


 ஒவ்வொரு layer-லும் பல neurons (units).
 Fully connected (Dense / MLP): ஒரு layer-இலிருந்து அடுத்த layer-ற்கு
எல்லா nodes connect.
 ANN ஒரு function approximator — input → output mapping
கற்றுக்கொள்ளும்.
 Depth (layers) அதிகமா இருந்தால் complex functions கற்று கொள்ள
முடியும்; width (neurons per layer) கூட முடியும் ‫ אך‬trade-offs உண்டு.

3) Neuron, Weights, Bias, Activation Function

Single neuron math (scalar):

 Inputs: x=[x1,x2,…,xn]x = [x_1,x_2,\dots,x_n]x=[x1,x2,…,xn]


 Weights: w=[w1,w2,…,wn]w = [w_1,w_2,\dots,w_n]w=[w1,w2,…,wn]
 Bias: bbb
 Linear combination: z=w⊤x+b=∑iwixi+bz = w^\top x + b = \sum_{i} w_i x_i +
bz=w⊤x+b=∑iwixi+b
 Activation (non-linear): a=f(z)a = f(z)a=f(z)

Vector (layer) form:

 z(l)=W(l)a(l−1)+b(l)z^{(l)} = W^{(l)} a^{(l-1)} + b^{(l)}z(l)=W(l)a(l−1)+b(l)


 a(l)=f(l)(z(l))a^{(l)} = f^{(l)}(z^{(l)})a(l)=f(l)(z(l))

Role intuition:

 Weights = strength of each input.


 Bias = allows activation to shift (like intercept).
 Activation = non-linearity — இல்லனா network மொத்தம் linear தான்
இருக்கும்.

4) Activation Functions (எந்துவகை & ஏன்)

நீங்கள் எப்போது எந்தது தேர்வு பண்ணுவது — quick guide included.

1. Sigmoid
o σ(z)=11+e−z\sigma(z)=\dfrac{1}{1+e^{-z}}σ(z)=1+e−z1 (range: 0—1)
o Good: binary-probability-like output.
o Bad: vanishing gradient for large |z|; not zero-centered.
2. Tanh
otanh⁡(z)=ez−e−zez+e−z\tanh(z)=\dfrac{e^z-e^{-z}}{e^z+e^{-
z}}tanh(z)=ez+e−zez−e−z (range: −1—1)
o Zero-centered → training சிறிது சீராக இருக்கும் vs sigmoid.
o Still vanishing gradients for large |z|.
3. ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit)
o ReLU(z)=max⁡(0,z)\mathrm{ReLU}(z)=\max(0,z)ReLU(z)=max(0,z)
o எளிதா compute பண்ணலாம்; sparse activations; fast convergence.
o Problem: dying ReLU (z negative → gradient 0). Solution: LeakyReLU.
4. Softmax (output layer for multi-class)
o softmax(z)i=ezi∑jezj\text{softmax}(z)_i = \dfrac{e^{z_i}}{\sum_j
e^{z_j}}softmax(z)i=∑jezjezi → probabilities summing to 1.
o Usually paired with categorical cross-entropy.

Which to use?

 Hidden layers: ReLU (or variants) commonly.


 Binary output: Sigmoid + Binary Cross-Entropy.
 Multi-class: Softmax + Categorical Cross-Entropy.

5) Forward Propagation — input → output flow (vectorized)

Step-by-step:

1. Start: a(0)=xa^{(0)} = xa(0)=x (input vector).


2. For each layer l=1…Ll=1\ldots Ll=1…L:
o z(l)=W(l)a(l−1)+b(l)z^{(l)} = W^{(l)} a^{(l-1)} +
b^{(l)}z(l)=W(l)a(l−1)+b(l)
o a(l)=f(l)(z(l))a^{(l)} = f^{(l)}(z^{(l)})a(l)=f(l)(z(l))
3. Final output: y^=a(L)\hat{y} = a^{(L)}y^=a(L) (logits or probabilities depending
on activation)

Why vectorize?

 GPU-friendly, much faster than loops.

Example pseudo-code (numpy-like):

for l in layers:
z = W[l] @ a + b[l]
a = activation(z)
y_hat = a
6) Backpropagation — Error correction (chain rule explained)

Goal: loss L(y^,y)L(\hat{y}, y)L(y^,y) குறைவாக்கும் போதான gradients


கண்டுபிடித்து weights update பண்ணுவது.

High-level steps:

1. Compute forward pass → get z(l),a(l)z^{(l)}, a^{(l)}z(l),a(l) saved for each layer.
2. Compute loss LLL.
3. Compute gradient at output: δ(L)=∂L∂z(L)\delta^{(L)} = \dfrac{\partial L}{\
partial z^{(L)}}δ(L)=∂z(L)∂L.
o For example, with softmax+cross-entropy, δ(L)=p^−y\delta^{(L)} = \
hat{p} - yδ(L)=p^−y (nice simplification).
4. For layer lll backward:
o ∇W(l)L=δ(l)(a(l−1))⊤\nabla_{W^{(l)}} L = \delta^{(l)} (a^{(l-1)})^\
top∇W(l)L=δ(l)(a(l−1))⊤
o ∇b(l)L=δ(l)\nabla_{b^{(l)}} L = \delta^{(l)}∇b(l)L=δ(l) (sum over batch)
o Propagate to previous layer: δ(l−1)=(W(l))⊤δ(l)∗f′(z(l−1))\delta^{(l-1)}
= (W^{(l)})^\top \delta^{(l)} * f'(z^{(l-1)})δ(l−1)=(W(l))⊤δ(l)∗f′(z(l−1))
5. Update parameters using chosen optimizer.

Single neuron short chain-rule example:

 z=w⊤x+bz = w^\top x + bz=w⊤x+b, a=f(z)a=f(z)a=f(z), L=12(a−y)2L=\tfrac{1}


{2}(a-y)^2L=21(a−y)2
 ∂L/∂w=(a−y) f′(z) x\partial L/\partial w = (a-y)\, f'(z)\, x∂L/∂w=(a−y)f′(z)x

Common issues:

 Vanishing gradients: early layers get tiny gradients → slow/stop learning. Fixes:
ReLU, BatchNorm, Residual connections (ResNet).
 Exploding gradients: gradients become huge. Fix: gradient clipping, careful init.

7) Loss Functions — MSE, Cross-Entropy (intuition + formula)

A) Mean Squared Error (MSE) — regression

MSE=1n∑i=1n(yi−y^i)2\text{MSE} = \frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^{n} (y_i - \


hat{y}_i)^2MSE=n1i=1∑n(yi−y^i)2

 Smooth, convex for linear models.


 Not ideal for probabilistic classification.

B) Binary Cross-Entropy (BCE) — binary classification with sigmoid


L=−[ylog⁡(p^)+(1−y)log⁡(1−p^)]L = - \big[ y\log(\hat{p}) + (1-y)\log(1-\hat{p}) \
big]L=−[ylog(p^)+(1−y)log(1−p^)]

 p^=σ(z)\hat{p} = \sigma(z)p^=σ(z) predicted probability.


 Strong gradients when prediction confident-but-wrong → helps training.

C) Categorical Cross-Entropy — multi-class with softmax

L=−∑iyilog⁡(p^i)L = -\sum_{i} y_i \log(\hat{p}_i)L=−i∑yilog(p^i)

 yyy is one-hot vector, p^=softmax(z)\hat{p}=\mathrm{softmax}(z)p^


=softmax(z).
 Intuition: negative log-likelihood — penalizes low probability for true class.

Notes:

 For numerical stability compute softmax+cross-entropy in one stable op (log-


sum-exp trick).

8) Optimizers — SGD, Momentum, RMSprop, Adam (intuition + update rules)

1. SGD (Stochastic Gradient Descent)

 Update: w←w−η∇wLw \leftarrow w - \eta \nabla_w Lw←w−η∇wL


 Mini-batch SGD: compute gradient on small batch → faster convergence & noise
helps escape shallow minima.
 Pros: Simple, often better generalization.
 Cons: Can be slow, sensitive to learning rate.

2. SGD with Momentum

 Keeps velocity vvv:


o v←μv−η∇wLv \leftarrow \mu v - \eta \nabla_w Lv←μv−η∇wL
o w←w+vw \leftarrow w + vw←w+v
 μ\muμ (momentum) ~ 0.9 typical.
 Intuition: builds speed in consistent gradient directions, damps oscillations.

3. RMSProp

 Keeps moving average of squared gradients sts_tst:


o st=βst−1+(1−β)gt2s_t = \beta s_{t-1} + (1-\beta) g_t^2st=βst−1+(1−β)gt2
o Update: w←w−ηst+ϵgtw \leftarrow w - \dfrac{\eta}{\sqrt{s_t + \
epsilon}} g_tw←w−st+ϵηgt
 Intuition: adaptive per-parameter learning rate (large gradients → smaller
effective LR).
4. Adam (Adaptive Moment Estimation)

 Combines momentum (first moment) + RMSProp (second moment). Equations:


o mt=β1mt−1+(1−β1)gtm_t = \beta_1 m_{t-1} + (1-\beta_1) g_tmt=β1mt−1
+(1−β1)gt (first moment estimate)
o vt=β2vt−1+(1−β2)gt2v_t = \beta_2 v_{t-1} + (1-\beta_2) g_t^2vt=β2vt−1
+(1−β2)gt2 (second moment)
o Bias corrections: m^t=mt1−β1t,v^t=vt1−β2t\hat{m}_t = \dfrac{m_t}{1-\
beta_1^t},\quad \hat{v}_t = \dfrac{v_t}{1-\beta_2^t}m^t=1−β1tmt,v^t
=1−β2tvt
o Update: w←w−ηm^tv^t+ϵw \leftarrow w - \eta \dfrac{\hat{m}_t}{\
sqrt{\hat{v}_t} + \epsilon}w←w−ηv^t+ϵm^t
 Defaults: β1=0.9, β2=0.999, ϵ=10−8\beta_1=0.9,\ \beta_2=0.999,\ \
epsilon=10^{-8}β1=0.9, β2=0.999, ϵ=10−8.
 Pros: great default for many problems; fast convergence.
 Cons: sometimes generalizes worse than carefully tuned SGD.

Which to choose?

 Prototype quickly → Adam.


 Final training for best generalization → SGD + momentum with learning rate
schedule.

Practical tips / Checklist (quick)

 Normalize inputs (zero-mean, unit-variance).


 Use mini-batches (32/64).
 Start with Adam, then try SGD+momentum for final.
 Use appropriate loss (MSE for regression; BCE/CrossEntropy for classification).
 Monitor training & validation loss → overfitting? use dropout / regularization.
 Use lr scheduling, early stopping.
 Use good init (Xavier/He) to avoid vanishing/exploding at start.

சரி 👍 Rajkumar! இப்போ நாம Level 2 – Neural Networks topics-ஐப் பூரணமாக detail-ஆ
explain பண்ணலாம்.

🧠 Level 2 – Neural Networks (Detailed Explanation in Tamil)


1. Perceptron & Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP)

🔹 Perceptron

 இது தான் Neural Network-ன் அடிப்படை block.


 ஒரு Perceptron =
o Inputs (x1, x2, …, xn)
o Weights (w1, w2, …, wn)
o Bias (b)
o Activation function (f)
 Output = f( Σ(wi * xi) + b )

👉 Example:
ஒரு flower setosa or versicolor-ஆனு predict பண்ணனும்னா →
Input = Petal length, Petal width →
Weights + Bias-ஐச் சேர்த்து → Activation function மூலம் → Yes / No (binary
output) predict பண்ணும்.

🔹 Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP)

 Single Perceptron மட்டும் இருந்தா அது linear problems-க்கு மட்டுமே


solve பண்ணும்.
 அதனால Multiple layers of perceptrons சேர்க்கப்படும் → அதுவே Multi-
Layer Perceptron (MLP).
 Structure:
o Input Layer → features
o Hidden Layers (1 or more) → nonlinear representation
o Output Layer → final prediction

👉 Example:
Digit Recognition (0–9):

 Input = pixel values (784 for 28x28 image)


 Hidden Layers = nonlinear features extract பண்ணும்
 Output = 10 classes (softmax function use பண்ணி)

2. Activation Functions

Activation function-ன் வேலை:


Neuron output-ஐ nonlinear ஆக்கி complex patterns learn பண்ண உதவும்.

🔹 Types of Activation Functions:

1. Sigmoid
o Formula: f(x) = 1 / (1 + e^(-x))
o Output range: (0,1)
o Mainly binary classification-க்கு use பண்ணப்படும்.
o Problem: Vanishing gradient.
2. Tanh (Hyperbolic Tangent)
o Formula: (e^x - e^-x) / (e^x + e^-x)
o Output range: (-1,1)
o Better than sigmoid, but still vanishing gradient problem இருக்கிறது.
3. ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit)
o Formula: f(x) = max(0, x)
o Positive values → 그대로 pass
o Negative values → 0
o Very fast, widely used.
o Problem: “Dead ReLU” (neuron stuck at 0).
4. Softmax
o Mainly multi-class classification (0–9 digits, cats/dogs/birds போன்றது).
o Formula: e^xi / Σ e^xj
o Output = probability distribution (sum = 1).

3. Gradient Descent & Variants

Training neural networks = minimize loss function.


இதுக்கு Gradient Descent (GD) algorithm use பண்ணுவோம்.

🔹 Gradient Descent Basics

 Weight update rule:


W(new) = W(old) – learning_rate * (∂Loss/∂W)

👉 Simple ah சொல்லனா → Loss minimize பண்ண weights-ஐ step by step adjust பண்ணும்.

🔹 Variants of Gradient Descent

1. Batch Gradient Descent


o Whole dataset-ம் ஒரே சமயம் process பண்ணும்.
o Accurate but slow.
2. Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD)
o ஒவ்வொரு sample-க்கும் weight update பண்ணும்.
o Fast but noisy updates.
3. Mini-Batch Gradient Descent
o Dataset-ஐ small batches-ஆ split பண்ணி update பண்ணும்.
o Speed + Stability இரண்டுக்கும் balance. (Widely used).
4. Regularization (Overfitting Control)

Neural networks க்கு பெரிய problem = Overfitting (train dataset-ஐ மட்டும்


கற்றுக்கொண்டு test data-வுக்கு fail ஆகுது).
இதுக்கு Regularization techniques use பண்ணுவோம்.

🔹 Types of Regularization:

1. L1 Regularization (Lasso)
o Penalty term = Σ |weights|
o Sparse model உருவாகும் (சில weights = 0 ஆகும்).
2. L2 Regularization (Ridge)
o Penalty term = Σ (weights²)
o Small weights-ஆ மாத்தும் → smoother model கிடைக்கும்.
3. Dropout
o Randomly சில neurons training போது off ஆகும்.
o Prevents over-reliance on certain neurons.
o Example: 50% dropout = பாதி neurons ignore பண்ணும்.
4. Batch Normalization
o ஒவ்வொரு layer-க்கும் input values normalize பண்ணும்.
o Training fast ஆகும் + better accuracy கிடைக்கும்.

✅ Summary (Level 2 – Neural Networks):

 Perceptron → basic unit.


 MLP → multiple layers → complex problems solve.
 Activation functions → nonlinear learning (Sigmoid, ReLU, Tanh, Softmax).
 Gradient Descent → weights update (SGD, Mini-batch, etc.).
 Regularization → Overfitting avoid (Dropout, L1/L2, BatchNorm).

சரி 👍 Level 3 – Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) பற்றி deep-ஆ detailed


explanation கொடுக்கிறேன்.

1. Convolution Layer, Pooling Layer, Fully Connected Layer

👉 CNN architecture-ல மூன்று முக்கியமான layers இருக்கும்.

🔹 Convolution Layer

 இது தான் CNN-க்கு அடிப்படை.


 Image-லிருந்து features (edges, shapes, patterns) எடுத்துக்கொள்ளும்.
 Filter / Kernel (matrix) ஒரு சிறிய அளவிலான window (3×3, 5×5) போல
இருக்கும்.
 அந்த filter image-க்கு மேலாக slide ஆகி multiply + sum செய்யும் (dot
product).
 இதை feature map என்கிறோம்.
 ஆரம்ப layers → edges, lines detect செய்யும்.
 deeper layers → complex patterns (eyes, faces) detect செய்யும்.

🔹 Pooling Layer

 Purpose → Reduce dimensions (downsampling), memory save செய்ய,


overfitting குறைக்க.
 இரண்டு methods:
o Max Pooling → filter உள்ளே maximum value எடுத்துக்கொள்ளும்.
(most important feature)
o Average Pooling → average value எடுத்துக்கொள்ளும்.
 Example: 2×2 Max Pooling → 4 values → 1 max value.

🔹 Fully Connected Layer (FC Layer)

 CNN last part-ல வரும்.


 Flatten செய்த feature maps → single vector.
 அந்த vector → MLP (multi-layer perceptron)-க்கு pass ஆகும்.
 Output → classification (e.g., Dog / Cat).

2. CNN for Image Classification

 Task → ஒரு படம் எந்த class-க்கு சொந்தமானது என்று predict செய்ய.


 Example: Dog vs Cat classifier.

Steps:

1. Input image கொடு (224×224×3).


2. Convolution + Pooling layers → features extract செய்கின்றன.
3. Flatten → FC layers.
4. Softmax activation → probability output (Dog = 0.9, Cat = 0.1).

Popular CNN Models:

 LeNet-5 (handwritten digit recognition).


 AlexNet (ImageNet 2012 winner).
 VGGNet, ResNet, InceptionNet (modern deep CNNs).
3. Object Detection

👉 Image classification-க்கு மேலே, object detection → படம் உள்ளே object எங்கே


இருக்கிறது + அது என்ன என்று கண்டுபிடிக்கிறது.
அதாவது → Classification + Localization (Bounding box).

Techniques:

 R-CNN (Region-based CNN):


o முதலில் selective search algorithm மூலம் regions (possible objects)
கண்டுபிடிக்கும்.
o ஒவ்வொரு region-க்கும் CNN apply செய்யும்.
o Slow, but accurate.
 Fast R-CNN:
o முழு image-க்கு CNN apply செய்து feature map உருவாக்கும்.
o அதிலிருந்து regions crop செய்யும் → Faster than R-CNN.
 Faster R-CNN:
o Region Proposal Network (RPN) use செய்து bounding box generate
செய்கிறது.
o மிகவும் வேகமானது.
 YOLO (You Only Look Once):
o Image-ஐ grid-ஆ divide பண்ணும்.
o ஒரே time-ல் bounding box + class predict செய்யும்.
o Real-time detection (very fast).

4. Image Segmentation

👉 Image-ஐ pixel-level classification செய்யும்.


அதாவது ஒவ்வொரு pixel-க்கும் எந்த object-க்கு சேர்ந்தது என்று சொல்வது.

Techniques:

 U-Net:
o Medical image segmentation (tumor detection).
o Encoder (CNN layers for feature extraction) + Decoder (upsampling for
pixel map).
o Output → segmented image.
 Mask R-CNN:
o Faster R-CNN extension.
o Bounding box மட்டும் இல்லாமல், ஒவ்வொரு object க்கு mask (pixel-
wise boundary) உருவாக்கும்.
o Example: ஒரே image-ல் multiple persons, cars segmentation.

✅ சுருக்கமாக:
 Convolution → features எடுத்துக்கொள்.
 Pooling → size குறை.
 FC → final classification.
 CNN → image classification க்கு use பண்ணு.
 Object Detection → bounding box + label.
 Segmentation → pixel-level classification.

சரி 👍 இப்போ நாம் Level 4 – Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) concepts-ஐ step by
step deep-ஆ தமிழிலும் English terms-ஓடும் detail-ஆப் பார்ப்போம்.

🔹 1. Sequential Data Processing

 Definition: Normal Neural Networks (MLP, CNN) mostly handle independent


data points (ex: ஒரு படம் → ஒரு output).
ஆனால் பல real-world data sequence form-ல இருக்கும்.
உதாரணம்:
o Text → ("I love", அடுத்து வரும் word என்ன?)
o Speech → ஒலி waves continuous sequence.
o Stock Market → நாள்தோறும் values time sequence-ஆ வரும்.
 Sequential Data Speciality:
o ஒவ்வொரு data point-மும் முன்னால் வந்த data-வுடன் தொடர்பு
வைத்திருக்கும்.
o அதனால் Neural Network க்கு "memory" வேண்டும். அதற்காக RNNs
உருவாக்கப்பட்டது.

🔹 2. RNN (Recurrent Neural Network)

 Idea: Normal NN மாதிரி இல்லாமல், RNN-க்கு feedback loop இருக்கும்.


 ஒவ்வொரு time step-இல்:
o Input (xₜ) + Previous Hidden State (hₜ₋₁) → New Hidden State (hₜ).
o இதனால் network க்கு ஒரு "short-term memory" கிடைக்கும்.

Equation:

ht=f(Wx⋅xt+Wh⋅ht−1+b)h_t = f(W_x \cdot x_t + W_h \cdot h_{t-1} + b)ht=f(Wx⋅xt+Wh


⋅ht−1+b)

 இங்கு:
o xtx_txt = current input
o ht−1h_{t-1}ht−1 = previous hidden state
o Wx,WhW_x, W_hWx,Wh = weight matrices
o fff = activation (tanh/ReLU)
Problem → Training போது gradient values either:

 மிகச் சிறியதாக (Vanishing Gradient Problem)


 மிகப் பெரியதாக (Exploding Gradient Problem) ஆகும்.

🔹 3. Vanishing Gradient Problem

 RNN training backpropagation-ல் long sequences இருந்தால், gradient values


multiply ஆகிக்கொண்டே செல்லும்.
 இதனால்:
o Gradient ≈ 0 → Weights update ஆகாது → Network past information
மறந்து விடும்.
 அதனால் RNN க்கு long-term memory இல்லை.
 இதைத் தீர்க்க LSTM, GRU வந்தது.

🔹 4. LSTM (Long Short-Term Memory)

 Special RNN architecture → long-term dependencies handle செய்ய


உருவாக்கப்பட்டது.
 Normal RNN hidden state மட்டும் வைத்திருக்கும், ஆனால் LSTM க்கு:
o Cell State (memory line)
o 3 Gates (control flow of information):

🔸 LSTM Gates

1. Forget Gate → எந்த information-ஐ நீக்கணும் என்று முடிவு செய்கிறது.

ft=σ(Wf⋅[ht−1,xt]+bf)f_t = \sigma(W_f \cdot [h_{t-1}, x_t] + b_f)ft=σ(Wf⋅[ht−1,xt]


+bf)

2. Input Gate → புதிய தகவல் எவ்வளவு add செய்ய வேண்டும் என்று முடிவு
செய்கிறது.

it=σ(Wi⋅[ht−1,xt]+bi)i_t = \sigma(W_i \cdot [h_{t-1}, x_t] + b_i)it=σ(Wi⋅[ht−1,xt]


+bi)

3. Output Gate → அந்த cell state-லிருந்து எந்த output-ஐ வெளியிடணும்


என்று முடிவு செய்கிறது.

ot=σ(Wo⋅[ht−1,xt]+bo)o_t = \sigma(W_o \cdot [h_{t-1}, x_t] + b_o)ot=σ(Wo


⋅[ht−1,xt]+bo)

 இதனால் LSTM க்கு both short-term + long-term memory கிடைக்கும்.


 பயன்பாடு: Translation, Speech Recognition, Text Generation.
🔹 5. GRU (Gated Recurrent Unit)

 Simplified LSTM version.


 LSTM-க்கு 3 gates, GRU-க்கு 2 gates மட்டுமே:
o Update Gate → எவ்வளவு past info retain செய்யணும்?
o Reset Gate → புதிய input-ஐ integrate செய்வது எப்படி?
 GRU simple architecture-ஆ training வேகமாக இருக்கும், ஆனால் performance
LSTM க்கு சமம்.
 பயன்பாடு: Chatbots, Time Series forecasting.

🔹 6. Applications of RNN, LSTM, GRU

1. Speech Processing 🎤
o Speech-to-Text (Google Voice, Siri)
o Voice recognition systems.
2. Natural Language Processing (NLP) 📖
o Text Generation (ChatGPT first versions RNN-ஆ base)
o Sentiment Analysis (Positive/Negative review classification)
o Machine Translation (English → Tamil).
3. Time Series Prediction 📈
o Stock Market, Weather Forecasting, Sales Prediction.
4. Music & Handwriting Generation 🎼✍️
o Past pattern-ஐ sequence-ஆப் பார்த்து புதிய output generate
செய்யும்.

✅ Summary Table:

Model Memory Type Gates Pros Cons

RNN Short-term None Simple, fast Vanishing gradient

LSTM Long + Short-term 3 gates Best for long sequences Complex, slow

GRU Long + Short-term 2 gates Faster than LSTM Slightly less expressive

சரி 👍 Level 5 – Natural Language Processing (NLP) + Transformers பற்றி


ஒவ்வொரு topic-ம் step-by-step detail-ஆ explain பண்ணிக்கொடுக்கிறேன்:
🔹 1. Word Embeddings (Word2Vec, GloVe)

 Word Embedding = Words-ஐ mathematical form-ஆ vector-களா represent


பண்ணுவது.
 Example: “King – Man + Woman = Queen” → இந்த மாதிரி relationship capture
பண்ணுது.
 Word2Vec (Google) → Skip-Gram, CBOW models-ல train பண்ணி word
similarity-ஐ கற்றுக்கொள்ளும்.
 GloVe (Stanford) → Co-occurrence matrix (ஒரே context-ல வரக்கூடிய
probability) based-ஆ word representation கற்றுக்கொடுக்கிறது.

👉 Use: Sentiment analysis, Search engines, Translation, Chatbots.

🔹 2. Seq2Seq Models (Encoder-Decoder)

 Sequential-to-Sequential (Seq2Seq) = ஒரு sequence input-ஐ (English


sentence) மற்றொரு sequence-ஆ output (French sentence) produce பண்ணுவது.
 Architecture:
o Encoder → Input sequence-ஐ compress செய்து ஒரு vector (context)
ஆக்குகிறது.
o Decoder → அந்த vector-ல இருந்து output sequence generate
பண்ணுகிறது.
 Example:
o Input: “I love cats”
o Output: “J’aime les chats”

👉 Problem: நீண்ட sentences வந்தா context vector-ஐ மட்டும் வைத்து எல்லா


தகவலும் store பண்ண முடியாது → இதை fix பண்ண Attention வந்தது.

🔹 3. Attention Mechanism

 Encoder-decoder model-ல, output word produce பண்ணும்போது input sentence-


ல relevant part-க்கு அதிக "weight" கொடுக்குது.
 Example:
o Input: “The cat sat on the mat”
o Output produce பண்ணும்போது → “mat” predict பண்ணும்போது “mat”-
க்கு அதிக கவனம் (attention) கொடுக்கும்.
 Benefits:
o Long sequences handle பண்ண முடியும்.
o Translation quality improve ஆகுது.

👉 இது தான் later Transformer architecture-க்கு base idea.


🔹 4. Transformers (BERT, GPT, T5)

(a) Transformer Basics

 Google (2017) introduce பண்ணியது: “Attention is All You Need” paper.


 RNN/CNN இல்லாம, pure attention-based architecture.
 Self-Attention: ஒவ்வொரு word-ம் மற்ற words-ோட தொடர்பை parallel-ஆ
கற்றுக்கொள்ளும்.
 Advantage: Faster, parallel training, long sequences handle பண்ணும்.

(b) BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers)

 Bidirectional-ஆ word meaning கற்றுக்கொள்கிறது (left + right context).


 Used for → Sentiment Analysis, Question Answering, Text Classification.

(c) GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer)

 Decoder-based transformer.
 Left-to-right generation.
 Used for → Chatbots, Story writing, Text completion.

(d) T5 (Text-to-Text Transfer Transformer)

 Google model → எல்லா NLP tasks-ஐ text-to-text problem-ஆ convert பண்ணுது.


o Example: Translation = “translate English to French: I love cats” → Output:
“J’aime les chats”.
 Very flexible model.

🔹 5. Applications of NLP + Transformers

1. Chatbots
o GPT-based conversational agents (ChatGPT மாதிரி).
o Customer support, Personal assistants.
2. Translation
o Google Translate, DeepL → Transformer models (Seq2Seq + Attention).
3. Sentiment Analysis
o Reviews, Tweets-ல sentiment (Positive/Negative/Neutral)
கண்டுபிடிக்க.
o Example: “This product is amazing” → Positive.
4. Text Summarization
o Long articles-ஐ short summary-ஆ மாற்றுவது.
5. Question Answering
o BERT models-ஐப் பயன்படுத்தி, given context-ல இருந்து answer
fetch பண்ணும்.
✅ Summary:

 Word embeddings → word meaning capture


 Seq2Seq → Encoder-Decoder architecture
 Attention → Long sequence-க்கு focus mechanism
 Transformer → Attention-based fast NLP architecture
 BERT → Understanding, GPT → Generating, T5 → Universal text-to-text
 Applications → Chatbots, Translation, Sentiment, QA

சரி 👍 Rajkumar! இப்போது Level 6 – Advanced Architectures பற்றிய முழு detailed


explanation breakdown கொடுக்கிறேன்.

🔹 Level 6 – Advanced Architectures

1. GANs (Generative Adversarial Networks)

👉 என்ன?
GAN என்பது இரண்டு Neural Networks (Generator + Discriminator)
ஒருவருக்கொருவர் போட்டியிடும் மாதிரி.

 Generator → போலியான (fake) data (உதா: images) உருவாக்கும்.


 Discriminator → data உண்மையா அல்லது போலியா என்று கண்டுபிடிக்கும்.

👉 Process:

1. Generator ஒரு random noise → fake image generate செய்கிறது.


2. Discriminator, அந்த image உண்மையா போலியா என்று சொல்லும்.
3. Generator தனது தவறை கற்றுக்கொண்டு இன்னும் realistic image
உருவாக்கும்.
4. Iterations ஆன பிறகு, Generator உருவாக்கும் image உண்மையைப் போல
இருக்கும்.

👉 Use Cases:

 Image Generation → மனித முகம் ([Link])


 Super Resolution → blurred image → HD convert
 Style Transfer → ஒரு painting style-ஐ மற்றொரு image-க்கு transfer
செய்யும்.

2. Autoencoders & Variational Autoencoders (VAE)

Autoencoder
👉 Structure:

 Encoder → Input data-வை compress (latent space representation) செய்யும்.


 Decoder → அந்த compressed representation-இல் இருந்து மீண்டும்
original data reconstruct செய்யும்.

👉 Use Cases:

 Dimensionality Reduction (PCA போல)


 Noise Removal (Denoising autoencoder)
 Anomaly Detection (உதா: fraud detection, network intrusion detection).

Variational Autoencoder (VAE)

👉 Normal autoencoder போலத்தான், ஆனால் latent space-ஐ probabilistic distribution


(Gaussian) போல கற்றுக்கொள்ளும்.
👉 இதனால் new & realistic data generate செய்யலாம் (GAN போலவே).

👉 Use Cases:

 புதிய face generation


 Drug discovery
 Text to image synthesis

3. Reinforcement Learning (RL) + Deep Q-Learning

👉 என்ன?
Reinforcement Learning என்பது Agent → Environment interaction.

 Agent ஒரு action எடுக்கும்.


 Environment feedback (Reward / Penalty) தரும்.
 Agent maximum reward பெற strategy கற்றுக்கொள்கிறது.

Deep Q-Learning

 Q-Learning → ஒவ்வொரு state-action pair க்கும் Q-value (expected reward)


கற்கும்.
 Deep Q-Learning (DQN) → Q-values-ஐ Neural Network மூலம் approximate
செய்யும்.

👉 Use Cases:

 Games → AlphaGo (Google DeepMind), Chess, Atari


 Robotics → Robot walking, object picking
 Trading → Stock/Forex decision making
4. Transfer Learning

👉 என்ன?
ஒரு பெரிய dataset (ImageNet போன்றது) மீது train செய்யப்பட்ட Pre-trained
models-ஐ எடுத்து, புதிய சிறிய dataset-க்கு பயன்படுத்துவது.

👉 பயன்?

 Training time குறையும்


 Better accuracy (because model already learned general features)
 சிறிய dataset-க்கும் நல்ல performance

👉 Popular Pre-trained Models:

 VGGNet → Simple, deep, good for image classification


 ResNet → Skip connections, vanishing gradient-ஐ handle செய்யும்
 Inception → Different kernel sizes parallel-ஆ பயன்படுத்தும்

👉 Use Cases:

 Medical image classification


 Face recognition
 Object detection
 NLP tasks (BERT, GPT → Transfer learning in text)

🎯 Summary (Easy Understanding)

1. GANs → Fake data create பண்ணி realistic போல காட்டும். (Image generation)
2. Autoencoders / VAE → Data compress + reconstruct. VAE → புதிய realistic
data create செய்யும்.
3. Reinforcement Learning → Trial & Error மூலம் best action
கற்றுக்கொள்ளும் (Game AI, Robotics).
4. Transfer Learning → பெரிய dataset pre-trained model-ஐ reuse பண்ணி புதிய
dataset-க்கு adapt பண்ணுவது.

சரி 👍 இப்போ Level 7 – Tools & Frameworks ஒவ்வொன்றையும் விரிவா தமிழில்


விளக்குறேன்.

🔹 Level 7 – Tools & Frameworks

1. TensorFlow
 இது Google உருவாக்கிய ஒரு Deep Learning Framework.
 அதிகமாக Production level models உருவாக்கவும், deploy பண்ணவும்
பயன்படுகிறது.
 Features:
o Low-level control (தான் functions எழுதிக்கொள்ளலாம்).
o High-level APIs (Keras integration).
o GPU/TPU support → வேகமாக train செய்யலாம்.
o Deployment options: mobile, web, cloud.
 Example:
o Image classification, speech recognition, recommendation systems.

2. PyTorch

 Facebook (Meta) உருவாக்கிய Deep Learning Framework.


 Researchers-க்கு மிகவும் easy & flexible.
 Features:
o Dynamic Computation Graph (runtime-ல் graph build ஆகும் →
debugging easy).
o Pythonic (நம்ம normal Python மாதிரி தான்).
o Large community support.
 அதிகமாக Research papers & experiments PyTorch-ல தான் செய்வாங்க.
 Example:
o NLP (BERT, GPT models), Computer Vision tasks.

3. Keras

 இது ஒரு High-level Deep Learning API (simplified library).


 முதலில் independent library; இப்போ TensorFlow-டோட official high-level API.
 Features:
o Easy-to-use (few lines code-ல complex model build பண்ணலாம்).
o Beginner-friendly.
o Runs on top of TensorFlow, Theano, CNTK (but mostly TensorFlow now).
 Example:
 from tensorflow import keras
 from [Link] import layers

 model = [Link]([
 [Link](128, activation='relu'),
 [Link](10, activation='softmax')
 ])

o இப்படி சுலபமா Neural Network உருவாக்கலாம்.


4. OpenCV

 Open Source Computer Vision Library.


 அதிகமாக Image processing, Computer Vision tasks-க்கு
பயன்படுத்தப்படுகிறது.
 Features:
o Image filtering, edge detection, face recognition.
o Video analysis (motion detection, tracking).
o Supports Python, C++, Java.
 Example Applications:
o Face detection in CCTV.
o Object tracking in self-driving cars.
o Barcode/QR code scanners.

5. Hugging Face

 இது NLP (Natural Language Processing)-க்கு முக்கியமான library.


 Pre-trained Transformers models (BERT, GPT, T5, RoBERTa, etc.) ready-to-
use-ஆ கிடைக்கும்.
 Features:
o 1000+ pre-trained models.
o Tokenizers (text-அ model-க்கு fit ஆக numerical format-ஆ மாற்றும்).
o NLP tasks → Sentiment Analysis, Question Answering, Translation, Text
Summarization.
 Example:
 from transformers import pipeline
 classifier = pipeline("sentiment-analysis")
 print(classifier("I love machine learning!"))

o Output: {'label': 'POSITIVE', 'score': 0.999}

✅ சுருக்கமாக:

 TensorFlow → Production-level ML/DL.


 PyTorch → Research-friendly, flexible.
 Keras → Beginners-க்கு easy-to-use API.
 OpenCV → Computer Vision tasks (Image/Video processing).
 Hugging Face → NLP tasks (Transformers-based models).

Super 👍 Now we are at Level 8 – Applications of Machine Learning & AI.


இது தான் Machine Learning-ஐ real-world-ல் எப்படி பயன்படுத்துறோம்
என்பதற்கு மிகப் பெரிய answer. ஒவ்வொரு application-ம் துல்லியமா explain
பண்ணுறேன் 👇
🔹 1. Self-Driving Cars

 Concept: மனிதர் இல்லாமல் கார் ஓட AI system-ஐ use பண்ணுறாங்க.


 Techniques Used:
o Computer Vision → camera, Lidar, radar-ல இருந்து வரும் images-ஐ
process பண்ணி, road, signal, obstacle-ஐ detect பண்ணும்.
o Deep Learning (CNNs, RNNs) → traffic sign recognition, pedestrian
detection.
o Reinforcement Learning → கார் எப்படி left/right/accelerate/brake
பண்ணணும் என்று decision-making.
 Example: Tesla Autopilot, Waymo Self-Driving cars.
 Challenges: accident-free driving, complex traffic, ethical decision-making (e.g.
crash unavoidable scenario).

🔹 2. Healthcare

 Concept: AI doctors & radiologists-க்கு உதவி பண்ணுது.


 Applications:
o Disease Prediction → diabetes, heart disease risk prediction using
patient data.
o Medical Image Analysis → X-ray, MRI, CT-scan images-ல tumor, fracture,
or organ issue detect பண்ண Deep Learning models (CNNs).
o Drug Discovery → புதிய மருந்து combinations design பண்ண Machine
Learning models.
 Example: IBM Watson Health, Google DeepMind (Eye disease detection).
 Impact: Early diagnosis → life saving, faster treatment planning.

🔹 3. Finance

 Applications:
o Fraud Detection → suspicious transaction patterns detect பண்ண ML
(Decision Trees, Neural Networks).
o Algo Trading → real-time stock market price predict பண்ணும் ML
models. (Time-series + Reinforcement Learning).
o Credit Scoring → loan applicants trustworthy ah illa nu decide பண்ண.
 Example: PayPal fraud detection, stock market trading bots.
 Challenge: Market volatility (பங்கு விலை sudden change).
🔹 4. Robotics

 Concept: Robots → human-like intelligence-ோடு environment-ஐ sense பண்ணி,


action perform பண்ணுது.
 ML Involvement:
o Computer Vision → robots-க்கு object recognition.
o Reinforcement Learning → trial-and-error method-ல tasks (walking,
grasping) கற்றுக்கொள்வது.
o NLP → robots-க்கு human commands புரிய வைக்க.
 Examples:
o Boston Dynamics robots (Atlas, Spot).
o Surgical robots (da Vinci system).
o Warehouse robots (Amazon Robotics).

🔹 5. Recommendation Systems

 Concept: User past behavior + preferences-ஐ use பண்ணி புதிய content suggest
பண்ணுது.
 Types:
1. Collaborative Filtering → “users like you also watched this.”
2. Content-Based Filtering → movie, product features-ஐ use பண்ணி similar
item suggest பண்ணுது.
3. Hybrid Systems → இரண்டு methods-ம் mix பண்ணி.
 Examples:

o Netflix → movies & series suggestions.


o YouTube → next video recommendations.
o Amazon → product recommendations.
 Impact: User engagement அதிகம், sales/views அதிகம்.

✅ Summary:
Level 8-ல் நாம பார்த்தது → ML/AI applications real-world industries-ல் எப்படி
impact பண்ணுது.

 Self-driving cars → autonomous transportation.


 Healthcare → faster, accurate diagnosis.
 Finance → fraud detection, algorithmic trading.
 Robotics → intelligent robots.
 Recommendation systems → personalized user experience.

Common questions

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The Tanh activation function is generally preferred over Sigmoid because it outputs values in the range of -1 to 1, which is zero-centered and helps in making the training process more efficient by having gradients with mean near zero, thus expediting convergence . However, similar to Sigmoid, Tanh suffers from the vanishing gradient problem for very large or small values of z, which can stall the training process . On the other hand, the Sigmoid function ranges from 0 to 1 and is not zero-centered, which can result in increased iteration time to come to convergence due to gradients not oscillating around zero .

When choosing an activation function for different layers, considerations include the type of task and layer: for hidden layers in deep networks, ReLU and its variants (like Leaky ReLU) are commonly used due to their non-linear properties and ability to mitigate the vanishing gradient problem, offering sparse activation which leads to more efficient networks . For binary classification tasks, Sigmoid is suitable for the output layer when paired with binary cross-entropy loss, while Softmax is ideal for multi-class classification as it provides probabilities that sum up to 1 for each class along with categorical cross-entropy . Additionally, the zero-centered property of activation functions like Tanh is advantageous for smoother training .

A CNN primarily consists of three main components: Convolutional Layers, Pooling Layers, and Fully Connected Layers . Convolutional Layers are responsible for feature extraction from input images by applying filters (kernels) to capture edges, textures, or more complex shapes depending on the depth of layers . Pooling Layers reduce the dimensionality of feature maps by summarizing the presence of features in patches of the feature map, therefore reducing computation and overfitting, especially in deeper networks . Finally, Fully Connected Layers aggregate these refined features for classification tasks using layers of neurons connected to every neuron in the previous layer, typically culminating in a Softmax function for multi-class classification .

Attention mechanisms allow neural networks to focus on the most relevant parts of the input sequence when processing data, thereby handling long sequences more effectively than simple RNNs, which have difficulty retaining information over long distances . By assigning different weightings to different input features (words, tokens), attention mechanisms help in understanding context better, thus improving the translation quality and facilitating better performance on tasks like translation, summarization, and question-answering . This mechanism was integral in the development of Transformers, which outperform previous models like RNNs or CNNs on various NLP tasks .

GANs consist of two neural networks, a Generator and a Discriminator, set up in a competitive scenario where the Generator aims to produce data similar in distribution to a target dataset, while the Discriminator tries to distinguish between real and generated data . This adversarial process encourages the Generator to produce increasingly realistic data as it attempts to fool the Discriminator over successive iterations. GANs have various practical applications, including realistic image synthesis (such as face or scenery generation), unsupervised learning for training complex models, enhancing image resolution (super-resolution), and transferring style from one image to another (style transfer).

Transformers eliminate the sequential nature of RNNs by relying entirely on self-attention mechanisms, allowing for parallelization and thus significantly improving training speed . Unlike RNNs, which are limited by their sequential processing of input data, Transformers process entire sequences simultaneously, making them more efficient for handling long-range dependencies and more capable of capturing context across long sequences . Additionally, by leveraging the self-attention mechanism, Transformers can better capture global dependencies and provide robust solutions for sequence-to-sequence tasks like translation, where understanding and utilizing entire context are crucial .

Mini-batch gradient descent is preferred because it strikes a balance between the high accuracy of batch gradient descent and the speed and stochasticity of stochastic gradient descent . It involves processing data in small batches, allowing for faster convergence and more stable updates compared to using the entire dataset (batch) or individual samples (stochastic). In practice, this approach leads to more consistent and faster convergence while reducing the noise of updates (as seen in SGD) and requiring less memory than batch gradient descent, making it practical for larger datasets and enabling more frequent parameter updates .

A single Perceptron can only solve linear problems because it's the basic building block comprising inputs, weights, a bias, and an activation function that gives a binary output . In contrast, a Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) is composed of multiple layers of perceptrons, which allows it to learn and solve complex, non-linear problems. The MLP consists of an input layer, one or more hidden layers for nonlinear representation, and an output layer for final predictions . This layered architecture enables the MLP to capture complex patterns that a single perceptron cannot.

Batch Normalization is used to normalize the input values of each layer to have zero-mean and unit-variance, which can speed up the training process and improve the model's stability and accuracy . It reduces the problem of vanishing gradients, allowing deeper networks to be trained, and makes the network less sensitive to the initialization of weights . By normalizing the activations in the network, Batch Normalization helps in reducing overfitting because it works as a form of regularization .

Autoencoders are neural networks used for unsupervised learning, typically tasked with reducing dimensionality by compressing input data into a latent representation and reconstructing the original input from this representation . Their primary use cases include dimensionality reduction, noise reduction, and anomaly detection . Variational Autoencoders (VAEs), on the other hand, incorporate probabilistic elements by mapping inputs to a distribution over the latent space instead of a single point, which enables them to generate new, realistic data similar to the input . This makes VAEs suitable for tasks such as data generation, such as synthesizing new images in realistic settings, drug discovery, and text-to-image synthesis .

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