PCRUT205 - SENSOR
TECHNOLOGY FOR ROBOTICS
MODULE -2
Module -2
Transducers and sensors: -Static and Dynamic Characteristics,
Classification of sensors, Robotic Sensors
Proximity sensor- Eddy current proximity sensor, Inductive Proximity
sensor, Capacitive Proximity sensor,
Force Sensor, Piezoelectric Sensor, Tactile sensor- Touch Sensor/Contact
Sensor.
Transducers and sensors
▪ Sensors and transducers are devices used in measurement systems.
▪ Sensor detects and measures a physical property, providing raw data about
the environment.
▪ Transducer, converts one form of energy into another, often transforming the
signal from a sensor into a more usable form.
▪ All transducers can be considered as sensors, not all sensors are transducers.
Transducers and sensors
Sensor Examples
▪ Thermistor: Detects temperature changes and alters its electrical resistance.
▪ Photodiode: Senses light intensity and converts it into an electrical current.
▪ Accelerometer: Measures acceleration (motion/vibration) and outputs a corresponding electrical signal.
▪ Proximity Sensor: Detects nearby objects, often using infrared, ultrasonic, or inductive principles.
Transducer Examples
▪ Microphone: Converts sound energy (vibrations) into electrical energy.
▪ Loudspeaker: Converts electrical energy back into sound energy.
▪ Strain Gauge: A sensor that changes resistance under strain, often used within pressure transducers to
convert pressure (force) into electrical signals.
▪ Piezoelectric Transducer: Converts mechanical stress/vibration into electrical charge, and vice versa (e.g.,
in some microphones, speakers, or pressure sensors).
Measurand & Measurement
The variable that is measured is termed the measurand.
▪ Examples are acceleration and velocity of a vehicle, torque into a robotic
joint, strain in a structural member, temperature and pressure of a process
plant, and current through an electric circuit.
The output of the sensor unit is the measurement.
▪ The nature of the measurand and the nature of the sensor output are
typically quite different. For example, while the measurand of an
accelerometer is the acceleration, the accelerometer output may be a
charge or a voltage. Similarly, the measurand of a strain-gauge bridge is a
strain and the bridge output is a voltage.
Sensor Characteristics
▪ The static characteristics are the set of criterions defined for the
instrument, when steady state conditions occur, i.e. the values given
when the transducer has settled down after having received some input.
▪ The dynamic characteristics refer to the behavior between the time that
the input value changes and the time that the value given by the
transducer settles down to the steady-state value.
Static Characteristics Dynamic Characteristics
• Range & Span
• Response Time
• Error
• Time constant
• Accuracy
• Rise time
• Sensitivity
• Settling time
• Hysteresis Error
• Non Linearity Error
• Repeatability/Reproducibility
• Stability
• Dead band/time
• Resolution
• Output impedance
Range and Span
▪ The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can
vary.
▪ The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value.
▪ Thus, for example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a
range of 0 to 50kN and a span of 50kN.
Error
▪ Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true
value of the quantity being measured:
error = measured value – true value
▪ Types of error: Instrumental, Environmental, Observational, Theoretical, Random
Errors, Gross Errors, Computational Errors, Truncation Errors
Accuracy
▪ It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value
of the quantity to be measured.
▪ Accuracy as percentage of true value: The accuracy is specified in terms of the
true value of the quantity being measured.
▪ Consider the true value of temperature measurement be 50o and measured
value be 47o. Then the percentage of accuracy is (47/50)*100 = 94% accuracy.
Sensitivity
▪ Sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the magnitude of the output
signal to the magnitude of the input signal.
▪ Sensitivity is the ratio of a change in output in response to a change in
input.
Hysteresis Error
▪ Transducers can give different outputs from the
same value of quantity being measured according to
whether that value has been reached by a
continuously increasing change or a continuously
decreasing change. This effect is called hysteresis.
Non Linearity Error
▪ Non-linearity error is the maximum deviation of a
sensor's actual output curve from an ideal straight line
over its operating range, showing how much its
response isn't perfectly proportional, typically expressed
as a percentage of the full-scale output
Repeatability/Reproducibility
▪ The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are used to describe
its ability to give the same output for repeated applications of the same input
value.
▪ It is specified in terms of scale reading over a given period of time.
Resolution
▪ When the input varies continuously over the range, the output signals for some
sensors may change in small steps.
▪ A wire wound potentiometer is an example of such a sensor, the output going
up in steps as the potentiometer slider moves from one wire turn to the next.
▪ The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that will produce an
observable change in the output.
Dead band/time
▪ The deadband or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values
for which there is no output.
▪ For example, bearing friction in a flow meters using a rotor, will result in
generating no output until the input has reached a particular velocity
threshold.
▪ The dead time is the length of time from the application of an input until
the output begins to respond and change.
Output impedance
▪ Sensor output impedance (Zo) is the internal opposition (resistance and
reactance) a sensor presents to the external circuit, affecting voltage
levels and power transfer of the connected circuit.
▪ A low impedance desired.
Stability
▪ It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout the
specified operating life.
▪ The term drift is often used to describe the change in output that occurs
over time. The drift may be expressed as a percentage of the full range
output.
▪ The term zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when
there is zero input.
Dynamic Characteristics
Response Time
▪ This is the time which elapses after a constant input, a step input, is applied to
the transducer up to the point at which the transducer gives an output
corresponding to some specified percentage of the value of the input.
▪ For example, if a mercury-in-glass thermometer is put into a hot liquid there
can be quite an appreciable time lapse, perhaps as much as 100s or more,
before the thermometer indicates 95% of the actual temperature of the liquid.
Time constant
▪ The time constant is a measure of the inertia of the sensor and so how fast it
will react to changes in its input.
▪ The bigger the time constant, the slower the reaction to a changing input signal.
▪ This is the 63.2% response time.
Rise time
▪ This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified percentage of the
steady state output
▪ Often the rise time refers to the time taken for the output to rise from 10 of the
steady state value to 90 or 95 of the steady state value
Settle time
This is the time taken for the output to settle to within 2% of the steady state
value.
Active and Passive Transducers
Active Transducers Passive Transducers
▪ The type of transducer which does not ▪ The type of transducer that requires an
require external power supply to addition source of power to work is
produce the output signal is known as known as a passive transducer.
an active transducer. ▪ Passive transducer naturally produces an
▪ Active transducer produces an output output signal of high amplitude, hence it
signal of very low amplitude. Therefore, does not require amplification of output
it requires amplification. signal.
▪ Active transducer is also known as self- ▪ Passive transducer is also known as
generating transducer. externally powered transducer.
▪ The common examples of active ▪ Examples of passive transducers are
transducers include piezo-electric potentiometer, thermistor, differential
crystals, thermocouple, tachogenerator, transformer, photomultiplier tube, etc.
photovoltaic cell, etc.
Analog and Digital Transducers
Analog Transducers Digital Transducers
▪ Outputs continuous voltage or current ▪ Outputs discrete digital signals, usually in
signals representing the analog value binary form
▪ Example: thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, ▪ Example: digital temperature sensors,
thermo-couple accelerometers, proximity sensors,
▪ Generally cheaper, suitable for simple gyroscopes
and low-cost applications. ▪ Generally more expensive, but has
▪ Limited transmission distance, advantages in accuracy and reliability
susceptible to electromagnetic ▪ Can be transmitted over long distances
interference via serial interfaces, strong anti
interference ability
Primary and Secondary Transducers
Primary Transducers Secondary Transducers
▪ When the input signal is directly sensed ▪ When the input signal is sensed first by
by the transducer and physical some detector or sensor and then its
phenomenon is converted into the output being of some form other than
electrical form directly then such a input signals is given as input to a
transducer is called the primary transducer for conversion into electrical
▪ For example a thermistor used for the form, then such a transducer falls in the
measurement of temperature. The category of secondary transducers.
thermistor senses the temperature ▪ Example: pressure measurement,
directly and causes the change in bourdon tube is a primary sensor which
resistance with the change in converts pressure first into displacement,
temperature. and then the displacement is converted
into an output voltage by an LVDT. In this
case LVDT is secondary transducer.
By Measured Property
▪ Temperature: Thermocouples, RTDs, Thermistors.
▪ Pressure: Bourdon tubes, strain gauges, diaphragms.
▪ Position/Motion: Encoders, accelerometers, gyroscopes, LVDTs.
▪ Light: Photodiodes, LDRs (Light Dependent Resistors).
▪ Chemical: Gas sensors, pH sensors, biosensors.
▪ Force/Strain: Load cells, strain gauges.
By Operating Principle/Transduction
▪ Resistive: Resistance changes with the measured property (e.g., strain gauges,
thermistors).
▪ Capacitive: Capacitance changes (e.g., humidity sensors, touch sensors).
▪ Inductive: Inductance changes (e.g., proximity sensors).
▪ Thermoelectric: Temperature difference creates voltage (e.g., thermocouples).
▪ Electrochemical: Chemical reactions create electrical signals (e.g., pH sensors).
Robotic Sensors
▪ Sensors in robotics allow machines to understand and react to the world around them.
▪ Like human senses, robotic sensors gather data about position, distance, pressure,
objects, and more, so the robot can move accurately, stay safe, and perform tasks
precisely.
▪ External (Exteroceptive) Sensors – Sensing the World
▪ Vision Sensors (Cameras): Recognize objects, navigate, and interpret visual scenes, acting as
the robot's "eyes".
▪ Proximity/Distance Sensors: Detect objects and their distance using ultrasonic (sound
waves) or infrared (light/heat).
▪ Light Sensors: Measure light levels, crucial for tasks like navigation or determining ambient
conditions.
▪ Temperature Sensors: Monitor thermal conditions, preventing component overheating and
adapting to environments.
▪ Force/Torque Sensors: Measure forces and torques on robot grippers or arms, vital for
delicate tasks.
Robotic Sensors
▪ Internal (Proprioceptive) Sensors – Sensing Themselves
▪ Accelerometers: Measure acceleration and vibration, helping robots understand
movement and balance.
▪ Gyroscopes: Detect orientation, rotation, and tilt, critical for stable navigation.
▪ Position/Encoder Sensors: Track the angles or linear positions of joints, knowing
the robot's body configuration.