0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

FIRST EDITION JUNE

2024

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

PHYSICS FOUNDATION EXAMS

2024

PREPARED BY;
PAULO WILLIAM MWAMPAMBA
0685621967
OTHER MATERIALS
1. UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS FORM 2
2. UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS FORM 4
3. UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS FORM 3
4. UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS FORM 1
5. HAND WRITTEN NOTES WITH SOLVED WITH ALL SOLVED
PROBLEMS FROM TIE BOOK
6. EXAMINATION SERIES
7. PERTOPIC EXAMS

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

O-LEVEL PHYSICS PRCATICAL

The exam has 2 questions. Question 1 comes from mechanics and question 2 can
come from either heat or light or waves or electricity.
Mechanics practical’s involves:
1. Hooke’s law
2. Simple pendulum
3. Principle of moments
4. Determination of density and relative density of substance
Light practical’s involves:
1. Plane mirrors (reflection of light)
2. Rectangular prism (refraction of light )
3. Determination of refractive index of liquids
Electricity practical’s involves:
1. Potentiometers
2. Metre bridges
3. Ohms law

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

3. The aim of this experiment is to determine the acceleration due gravity (g)
using simple pendulum.
Procedure:
(a) Set the apparatus as shown in the figure below

(b) Suspend the pendulum bob from a fixed point O using a cotton string
provided so that its length H = 130cm touching the floor.
(c) Adjust the length of the string from the floor to the distance of h =20cm
(d) Displace the pendulum bob, through a small angle, to one side and gently
release it so that it moves to and fro motion. Record the time t for ten (10)
complete oscillations and obtain the period T.
(e) Repeat the procedure for h = 30cm, 40cm, 50cm, 60cm and 70cm.
Questions
(i) Tabulate your results for the values of h, t, T and 𝑇 2 .
(ii) Plot the graph of 𝑇 2 against h
(iii) From the graph determine the slope (S) and 𝑇 2 -intercepts
𝐻−ℎ
(iv) If T and h are related by the equation T = 2𝜋√ ,calculate the
𝑔
acceleration due to gravity
(v) Mention any two (2) possible sources of errors which are likely to affect this
experiment and their respective precautions to be taken.

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Solution
(e) (i) Table of results

(ii) The graph of 𝑻𝟐 against h

∆𝑻𝟐
(iii) Slope S = = - 0.004sec2/cm.
∆𝒉
𝑻𝟐 -intercepts when h = 0 is 5.1sec2.
𝑯−𝒉
(iv) Given T = 2𝝅√
𝒈
−𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒉 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝑯
𝑻𝟐 = +
𝒈 𝒈
𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
−𝟒𝝅𝟐
Slope, S =
𝒈
−𝟒𝝅𝟐
-0.04 =
𝒈
−𝟒𝝅𝟐 −𝟒 ×𝟑.𝟏𝟒×𝟑.𝟏𝟒
g= = = 986.96cm/sec2.
−𝟎.𝟎𝟒 −𝟎.𝟎𝟒
Acceleration due to gravity = 986.96cm/sec2.
(v) Possible source of errors and their precautions
(i) Parallax error in reading metre rule
Precaution; reading should be taken while the eyes are
positioned perpendicular to the rule.
(ii) Air resistance may affect the experiment
Precautions: prevent all source of wind to entre in the
laboratory like closing windows and doors

8. You are provided with an inextensible of about 120cm long, a retort stand with
its accessories, two wooden clamps, metre rule, stop watch and a pendulum
bob.
Proceed as follows
(a) Set up the apparatus as shown in figure below

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(b) Set X = 110cm, displace a pendulum bob through a small angle about 100
and release it such that, it begins to swing to and fro motion. Determine the
time, t for 20 complete oscillations and hence periodic time, T in seconds.
(c) Repeat the procedure in (b) above for the values of X = 90cm, 70cm, 50cm,
and 30cm.
Questions
(i) Construct a table of results including the values of 𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝟐 )
(ii) Plot the graph of 𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝟐 ) against x(cm)
(iii) From the graph determine the slope M and 𝑻𝟐 - intercepts B.
(iv) Derive the equation of the graph and use it to acceleration due to
gravity.
(v) Calculate the value of constant C from C×M = -B
(vi) If C = 0.5 x Q. Find the value of Q and hence state the physical
meaning of Q.
(vii) State two aims of the experiment:
Solutions
(i) Table of results
x t (sec) T(sec) 𝑇 2 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 )
110 42 2.10 4.41
90 38 1.90 3.61
70 34 1.70 2.89
50 28 1.40 1.96
30 22 1.10 1.21
2
(ii) The graph of 𝑇 against x(cm)

6 Scale:
Scale horizontal scale:
1cm represent 10cm

Vertical scale:
1cm represent 0.2sec2.
0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

Graph

∆𝑇 2
(iii)From the graph, slope, M = = 0.04sec2/cm.
∆𝑋
Also 𝑇 2 - intercepts, B = - 0.05𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
(iv) Derivation of equation
Refer to the diagram

𝐿
T = 2𝜋√ ,
𝑔
From diagram, X = L + r
L=X–r
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Then
𝑋−𝑟
T = 2𝜋√ ,
𝑔
4𝜋2 𝑋 4𝜋2 𝑟
𝑇2 = −
𝑔 𝑔
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Using equation above:
4𝜋2
Slope, m =
𝑔
4𝜋2
g=
𝑚
4 ×3.14 ×3.14
g= = 985.96cm/sec2.
0.04
(v) Given C × M = - B
−𝐵
C= but B = -0.05sec2.
𝑀
−(−0.05𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 )
C= = 1.25cm
0.04𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 /𝑐𝑚
(vi) C = 0.5 × 𝑄
1.25cm = 0.5 × Q
1.25𝑐𝑚
Q= = 2.5cm.
0.5
The physical meaning of Q is diameter of the pendulum bob
(vii) Two aims of the experiment
 To determine acceleration due to gravity by means of
simple pendulum
 To determine the diameter of the pendulum bob.
9. You are provided with a retort stand with its accessories, two piece of wood, a
thread, pendulum bob, and stopwatch and metre rule.
Setting

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(a) Hang the pendulum bob on one end of a 90cm length of thread and clamp
the other end firmly between two small pieces of wood as shown in figure
below.

(b) Displace a pendulum bob to a small distance and release it such that, it
begins to swing to and fro motion. Determine the time t for twenty (20)
complete oscillations and hence corresponding periodic time, T.
(c) Repeat the procedure in (b) above for the values of L = 70cm, 50cm, 30cm,
10cm.
Questions
(i) Construct a table of results that includes the values of 𝑻𝟐 .
(ii) Plot the graph of L (cm) against𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐)
(iii) From the graph determine the slope G.
(iv) Find the value of acceleration due to gravity, g.
(v) Give two importance of the value obtained in (iv) above in daily life
activities.
Answer
(i) Table of results

(ii) The graph of L(cm) against 𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 )

Scale:
Vertical scale 1cm represent 5cm
Horizontal scale 1cm represent 0.25sec2.

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

See graph below

∆𝑳 (𝒄𝒎)
(iii) Slope = =
∆𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 )
(iv) Periodic time for pendulum given by
𝑳
T = 2𝝅√
𝒈
𝑳
𝑻𝟐 = 4𝝅𝟐 ×
𝒈
𝒈𝑻𝟐
𝑳=
𝟒𝝅𝟐
𝒚 = mx
𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
𝒈
𝒎 =
𝟒𝝅𝟐
𝒈 = 𝟒𝝅𝟐 m
𝒈 = 4 x 3.14 x 3.14 x 25
𝒈 = 𝟗𝟖𝟓. 𝟗𝟔
g = 985.96cm/sec2.

(v) Importance of value of g

 It helps to pull everything towards the centre of the earth
 Helps to walk

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

[Link] aim of this experiment is to determine the acceleration due to gravity g by

means of a pendulum bob B.
Procedure
(i) Tie a thread to the given pendulum bob make a knot at a distance from the
bob. This distance should be of the order of [Link] and record
distance, b between the knot, N and the pendulum bob B.

b = 10cm

The distance between the knot N and the point of suspension Y is

denoted by X as indicated above. Adjust x to be 10cm. Displace the
pendulum by a small angle and then release it so that it swings to and fro
with a small amplitude of vibration . Find the time t for 20 oscillations
and hence determine the periodic for one oscillation.
(ii) Repeat this process for the values of x = 30cm, 50cm, 70cm and 90cm.
(iii) Tabulate the values of x, t, T and𝑻𝟐 .
𝑿+𝒃
(iv) If the periodic time T is related to x by the equation T =2𝝅 √
𝒈
(a) Plot the graph of 𝑻𝟐 against x.
(b) Find the slope ,m of your graph
(c) Calculate the value of acceleration due to gravity, g.
(d) Read and record the value of 𝑻𝟐 when x = 0 as 𝑻𝟎 𝟐
𝑻𝑶 𝟐
(e) Evaluate P =
𝒎
𝑻𝑶 𝟐
(f) How is b related to
𝒎
(g) Read and record the value of the x-intercept.
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(h) What is the physical significance of the x-intercept?

(i) State any two (2) sources of errors and precautions
Solution
(ii) Table of results
Length Time , t for 20 Periodic 𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 )
x(cm) oscillations(sec) time T,
(sec)
10 17.89 0.890 0.79
30 25.69 1.280 1.64
50 30.94 1.547 2.39
70 36.25 1.813 3.29
90 40.50 2.025 4.39
2
(a) The graph T against x (cm)
Scale
Vertical scale: 1cm represent 0.2sec2.
Horizontal scale; 1cm represent 10cm

∆𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 )
(b) Slope from the graph m = = 0.04sec2/cm.
∆𝑳(𝒄𝒎)

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𝑿+𝒃
(c) Given T =2𝝅 √
𝒈
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒙 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒃
𝑻𝟐 = +
𝒈 𝒈

𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
𝟒𝝅𝟐
𝒎=
𝒈

𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝟒 ×𝟑.𝟏𝟒×𝟑.𝟏𝟒
𝒈= = = 985.96cm/sec2.
𝒎 𝟎.𝟎𝟒

(d) Value of 𝑻𝟎 𝟐 when x = 0 (y-intercept) is 0.4cm

𝑻𝑶 𝟐 𝟎.𝟒
(e) P = = = 10cm.
𝒎 𝟎.𝟎𝟒
𝑻𝑶 𝟐
(f) The value of b = P = = 10cm
𝒎
(g) From the graph x-intercept x = -10cm
(h) Physical significance of x-intercept is the distance between the bob
and the knot.
(i) Possible sources of errors
 Air resistance to oscillating motion of the pendulum bob.
 Parallax error in measurement of length of the string using
metre rule.
 Error in starting and stopping stop watch
 Large displacement of the bob which may disturb to and fro of
the bob.
 Too much estimation of the data
[Link] aim of this experiment is to determine the intensity of the Earth’s
gravitation field proceed as follows:
(a) Tie a bob with a thread and the other end suspended on the retort stand
so that the bob is free to oscillate.
(b) Measure the length (L) from the centre of the bob to the retort stand to be
40cm.
(c) Displace it with a small angle and release it to oscillate and find time (t)
for 20 oscillations.
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(d) Repeat the procedure in (c) above with L = 60, 80, 100, 120 and 140cm.
(e) Tabulate your results to include L (cm), t(s), T(s), logT and logL.
(f) Plot the graph of logT against logL.
(g) Using the relation that T= KLaand the graph drawn, find the value of “a”.
(h) Obtain the vertical – intercept from your graph and use it to find the
𝟐𝛑
intensity of the Earth’s gravitational field (g), given that K =
√𝐠
(i) State any two (2) – precautions that should be taken to minimize the error
that may arise.
Solution
(i) Table of results
L(cm) t(sec) T(sec) LogT(sec) LogL(cm) LogL(m)
40 24 1.20 0.08 1.60 -0.40
60 30 1.50 0.18 1.78 -0.22
80 35 1.75 0.24 1.90 -0.10
100 40 2.00 0.30 2.00 0
120 43 2.15 0.33 2.08 0.08
140 47 2.35 0.37 2.15 0.15

(ii) The graph of log T(sec) against log L(cm)

Graph

(iii)Given the relation

T= k𝐥𝐚
Apply common logarithm
LogT= log (k𝐥𝐚 )
LogT = Logk + logk𝐥𝐚
LogT = alog + log k
Compare with equation y = mx + c
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Log T = alogL +logk

Y = mx + c
Then slope (m) is represented by letter “a”.
From the graph
∆𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐓(𝐬𝐞𝐜)
Slope (m) =
∆𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐥(𝐦)
𝟎.𝟑𝟓𝟐−𝟎.𝟏𝟓
m=
𝟎.𝟏− −𝟎.𝟐𝟕
m = 0.55sec/m
Then the value of “a” = 0.55sec/m

(iv) Vertical intercept is 0.30sec

From c = log k
0.30 = logk
k= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 −𝟏 (1.99)
𝟐𝛑
Given that k =
√𝐠
𝟐𝛑
√𝐠 = 𝐤
𝟐𝝅 𝟐
g= ( )
𝒌
𝟐×𝟑.𝟏𝟒 𝟐
g= ( )
𝟏.𝟗𝟗
g = 9.96N/kg
g = 9.96m/sec2.
The intensity of the earth’s gravitational field g = 9.96N/kg.
(v) Sources of errors
i. Winds
Precautions
Close windows and doors
ii. Parallax error
Precautions
Take reading perpendicular to the scale
iii. Error in starting and stopping stop watch
Precautions
Take care in starting and stopping stop watch

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

[Link] are provided with a retort stand, a string of 110cm, a stop watch, 50 grams
mass, cork pads and a metre rule.
(a) Set up the apparatus as shown in fig.1

Inextensible string
Retort stand
L

Table
50g

(b) Set the string at a length L = 10cm, displace the 50g mass and release to
make it oscillate and then determine the time, t taken for complete 20
oscillations (n=20)
(c) Repeat the procedure in (b) above for the values of
L = 20cm, 30cm, 40cm and 50cm; and then
(i) Tabulate the results including the values of t2.
(ii) Plot the graph of t2 (sec2) against the length L (cm).
(iii) Find the slope of the graph.
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝑳
(iv) Determine the value of ‘Z’ given that ,t2 = +c
𝒁
(v) State the significance of ‘Z’
(vi) State the aim of the experiment.
Solution
(c) Table of results for 20 oscillations
(i)
L(cm) t (s) 𝒕𝟐 (𝒔𝟐 )

10 13 169

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20 18 324

30 22 484

40 25.4 645.16

50 28.4 806.56

(ii) Graph
THE GRAPH OF 𝒕𝟐 (𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 ) AGAINST LENGTH L (cm)

GRAPH

(iii)Slope

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∆𝒕𝟐 (𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 )
From the graph slope, m = = 15.9
∆𝑳(𝒄𝒎)
Slope, m = 15.9sec2/cm.
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝑳
(iv) Given , t2 = +c
𝒁
Equate with y = mx + c
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝑳
Then, m =
𝒁
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝑳
Z=
𝒎
𝟒 × (𝟑.𝟏𝟒)𝟐 ×(𝟐𝟎)𝟐
Z=
𝟏𝟓.𝟗
Z = 992.2cm/s2.
(v) The value of Z = 992.2cm/s2, which is equal to the value of acceleration
due to gravity
Significance of z
 Keeps planets revolve around their orbits
 It holds us on the earth
 Cause the object to fall towards the ground
(vi) The aim of experiment was to determine the value of acceleration due to
gravity.

[Link] aim of the experiment is to determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) ,
set up the apparatus as shown below

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(a) Suspend the pendulum from a fixed point using the retort stand such that it
at distance 10cm from the floor. H is the height above the floor to the point
of suspension. Set H = 90cm.
(b) Displace the pendulum through a small angle to one side and record the time
“t” for 10 complete oscillations hence find the periodic time “T” for one
complete oscillations.
(c) Vary “d” in the interval of 10cm to obtain five more readings and repeat the
procedure in (b) above.
(d) Tabulate your results for the values of d, t ,T and 𝑇 2
(e) Plot the graph of 𝑇 2 against d
(i) Determine the slope of your graph
(ii) Determine the intercept along d-axis
(iii)What does intercept along d-axis in (ii) represent
4𝜋2 𝑑 4𝜋2 𝐻
(iv) Calculate acceleration due to gravity given that 𝑇 2 = − +
𝑔 𝑔
Solution
(Solution to the book)

[Link] four student from Boma village secondary school did an experiment.
They aimed to determine acceleration due to gravity using simple pendulum.
Read their procedure and do the experiment on your own and answer the
question asked.
a) They attached pendulum bob to a piece of thread 100cm long and
make connection as seen here under.

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

Cork pad

Retort stand
Thread = 100cm

Pendulum bob
Bench

d =0

Reference point /line

Floor

Note d = is the distance from the bob to the reference point.

b) They set the pendulum to oscillate through a small angle and
determine the time “t” for 20 complete oscillations and its periodic
time T
c) They repeated the procedure in 1(b) above by reducing the length of
the thread and increasing the value of “d” by 10cm, 20cm, 30cm,
40cm, 50cm, 60cm and 70cm.
Follow those procedure did by students from Boma village secondary
school and answer the question below
(i) Tabulate your results including the value of the length of the
thread and T2.
(ii) Plot the graph of “d” against “T2”.
(iii) Determine the slope from the graph
(iv) Compute the acceleration due to gravity ,g using the equation S
−𝐠
= 𝟐
where S is a slope of the graph plotted in 1(ii)
(𝟐𝛑)
(v) What does the value of d- intercept represent?
Solution
(Available to the book)

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25. The aim of experiment in figure below is to demonstrate the young’s

modulus, Y of a meter rule.
0cm
Retort stand
G-clamp
Pointer
L

Meter rule
100cm

(a) Clamp a metre rule along the top of the bench with its graduated face
upwards and with a length L of about 85cm projecting beyond the edge of
the bench. Record the length L.
(b) Attach the pointer to the free end of the metre rule and note its position 𝑿𝟎
on a metre rule clamped vertically in retort stand when unloaded.
(c) Suspend a load of mass M of 50g at a distance 1.0cm from the free end.
Note the new position X of the pointer and then deduce the depression, d, of
the pointer on the metre rule scale.
(d) Repeat the procedure (c) above for M equal to 100g, 150g, 200g, 250g and
300g.
(e) Tabulate your results
(f) Plot the graph of d against M.
(g) Find the slope ,S, of the graph
(h) Use the vernier caliper to measure the breadth, b, and the thickness, t, of the
metre rule.
(i) Calculate young’s modulus for the wooden metre rule from the expression
𝐒𝐛 𝟏 𝐋 𝟑
= ×( )
𝟒𝐠 𝐘 𝐭
(j) Mention two sources of errors and two precautions taken in this experiment.
Note: use real wooden rule
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Solution
See appearance of the ruler after loaded

𝑥0

𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0

(a) L = 85cm = 0.85m

(b) 𝑋0 = 24
(e) Table of results
Mass , M (g) 50 100 150 200 250

New position,x(cm) 26.7 29.3 32 34.5 37.3

Depression ,d = (x-𝑥0 ) 2.7 5.3 8 10.5 13.3

(f) The graph of d against M

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∆𝑑
(g) The slope , S = = ………
∆𝑀
(h) Breadth , b = 2.5cm =0.025m
Thickness, t = 0.5cm = 0.005m
𝐒𝐛 𝟏 𝐋 𝟑
(i) Given = ×( )
𝟒𝐠 𝐘 𝐭
4𝑔 𝐿 3
Y= ×[ ] =
𝑆𝑏 𝑡

(j) Two source of errors

……..
[Link] aim of this experiment is to determine “Young’s modulus” of a given of a
given metre rule.
Proceed as follows:
 Use vernier callipers to measure the breadth and thickness of the metre
rule provided.

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 Take a metre rule and fix it at its 10cm mark by means of a G- clamp.
Record the height 𝒉𝟎 above the ground
 Take 50g weight (L) provided and suspend it on the metre rule at 90cm
mark using a string. Note the new height h, above the ground.
 Repeat the above procedure by suspending the weights of 100g, 150g,
200g, 250g and 300g from the same positions, each time recording the
new height h.
(a) Record your readings in a suitable table and include column for
(𝒉𝟎 − 𝒉).
(b) Plot the graph of L (load) vertical axis against (𝒉𝟎 − 𝒉) horizontal
axis
(c) From your graph find the slope G.
(d) Determine Young’s modulus Y of the wooden metre-rule given that
𝟒 𝒍 𝟑
Y=
𝑮𝒃 𝒕
( ) , where 𝒍 is the distance of point of the weight of the
weight from the clamp, b is the breadth of the metre rule and t is the
thickness of the wooden metre rule.
Solution
(a) Table of results
𝒉𝟎 = 74.5cm
24
0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

Breadth b, = 2.5cm
Thickness, t = 0.5cm

Load (g) Height (cm) 𝒉𝟎 − 𝒉

50 73.5 1.0

100 72.8 1.7

150 71.8 2.7

200 70.9 3.6

250 70.0 4.5

300 69 5.5

(b) A GRAPH OF LOAD (g) AGAINST (𝒉𝟎 − 𝒉)(cm)

Scale:

(c) From the graph, slope, G =

𝟒 𝒍 𝟑 𝟒 𝟖𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝟑
(d) Young’s modulus Y = ( ) = 𝟓𝟓.𝟔×𝟐.𝟓 × ( ) =
𝑮𝒃 𝒕 𝟎.𝟓

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

[Link] aim of the experiment is to determine the mass of a given object B and the
constant of the spring provided.
(i) Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure below with a zero mark of a
metre rule at the top of the rule and record the scale reading by the pointer
as 𝑺𝟎 .

(ii) Place the object B and standard weight mass (w) equal to 20g in the pan
and record the new pointer reading as Calculate extension, e = S - 𝑺𝟎 in
cm.
(iii) Repeat the procedure in (ii) above with w = 40g, 60g, 80g and 100g.
(a) Record your result in tabular form as shown below.

Mass (g) Mass (kg) Force F(N) S(cm) 𝑺𝟎 (cm)

20

40

60

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

80

100

(b) Plot the graph of force (N) against extension (m)

(c) Use graph to evaluate
(i) Mass of B
(ii) Spring constant K, given that the force, extension, constant and
weight of B are related as follows; F = ke – B.
Solution
(solution to the book)
[Link] aim of this experiment is to determine the mass, 𝒘𝒙 and the force constant
of the spring.
Proceed as follows
(a) Assemble the apparatus as shown in the figure below with zero mark of the
meter rule at the upper most end.

(b) Add 50g mass on the weight pan. Leave this weight for the whole
experiment. Record the scale reading as 𝑺𝟎 .
(c) Add the weight w = 50g on the pan and record the reading as S. Calculate
the extension, e caused by the weight given by e = S - 𝑺𝟎 .

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(d) Repeat with different (w) procedure in (c) above to obtain at least five
readings by adding 50g in each step.
(e) Replace the weight (w) by the weight 𝒘𝒙 provided and find the
corresponding extension. Record this extension as 𝑺𝒙 in cm.
(f) Tabulate your results
(g) Plot the graph of load against extension.
(ii) Find the gradient G of the graph
(iii)What is the physical meaning of the gradient?
(h) Use the graph you have drawn to determine the mass of the weight 𝒘𝒙
Solution
Available to the book
[Link] the practical detail careful

Assemble the apparatus as shown in figure above with zero mark scale of the
rule at the top most end. Record pointer reading 𝐚𝐬 𝐒𝟎 . Put 20g to the pan and
record point reading as S. Find the extension e = (S -𝑺𝟎 )
Repeat the procedure for the mass of 40g, 60g, 80g and 100g. Replace masses
with object x on the pan and record its pointer reading and find its extension.
(a) Summarize your results in the table below

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

Mass on pan (g) 20 40 60 80 100 X

Pointer reading (cm)

Extension e = S - 𝐒𝟎

(b) Plot the graph of mass against extension

(c) Find the slope , p of your graph
(d) Find mass of body x using graph
(e) Find Q, Given that Q = P𝒆𝒙 , where 𝒆𝒙 is the extension of x.
(f) Comment on Q and x.
Solution
Pointer reading 𝐒𝟎 = 44cm
(a) Table of results
Mass on pan (g) 20 40 60 80 100 X

Pointer reading (cm) 46.5 49.4 52.5 55.4 58.2 51.0

Extension e = S - 𝐒𝟎 2.5 5.4 8.5 11.4 14.2 7.0

(b) THE GRAPH OF MASS (g) AGAINST EXTENSION (cm)

Mass (g)

Mass x

∆ Mass (g)
𝑚𝑥 = 50𝑔

∆e (cm)

𝑒𝑥 =7.0cm Extension (cm)

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

∆𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
(c) Slope , p = =
∆𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
(d) From the graph mass of body x = 50g
(e) Given that Q = P𝒆𝒙 ,where p = 7.03g/cm and 𝒆𝒙 = 7.0cm
Q = ……….g/cm x 7.0cm = 49.21g
(f) Q and X are both masses which are almost equal
[Link] aim of this experiment is to determine the refractive index of water. You
are provided with 250ml measuring cylinder , two optical pins ,a piece of cello
tape, Clear water in a container ,retort stand and 30cm rule

Proceed as follows

Image pin Observer

Retort stand

h2

h1

Object pin Search pin

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(a) Put about 130cm3 of clean water in the beaker. Drop an optical pin in the
beaker. Record the height of clean water reached as h1.
(b) Use another optical pin as a search pin, move it up and down outside the
beaker using retort stand as seen in figure above and locate the image
position by non –parallax error method .Measure and record the depth h2
of the image.
(c) Repeat the experiment with 160cm3,190cm3 and 250cm3 of water in the
measuring cylinder
(d) Tabulate your results as follows
Volume(cm3) h1(cm h2(cm) h=h1-h2
130
160
190
220
250
(e) Plot the graph of h2 against h
(f) Determine the slope of the graph
(g) Write the equation connecting h2 and h
(h) Using your graph and equation you have written in (g) above ,calculate
the refractive index of water
(i) What is the name of the effect that can be given to your experiment?
(j) State two (2) conditions for the effect you have mentioned in (i) above to
take place in this experiment.

Solution
(d) Table of results
Volume (cm3) 𝒉𝟏 (cm) 𝒉𝟏 (cm) 𝒉 = 𝒉𝟏
−𝒉𝟐 (cm)
130 3.8 2.9 0.9
160 4.7 3.5 1.2
190 5.6 4.2 1.4
220 6.5 4.9 1.6
250 7.3 55 1.8

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(e) Graph
THE GRAPH OF h2 (cm) AGAINST h (cm)
SCALE:
Vertical scale: 1cm represent 0.5cm
Horizontal scale: 1cm represent 0.2cm

Graph

∆𝒉𝟐
(f) Slope =
∆𝒉
𝟑.𝟑.𝟓−𝟎.𝟓
m=
𝟏.𝟎𝟐𝟓−𝟎.𝟐
m = 3.4
(g) Equation
Compare with y = mc
h2 = mh
h2 = 3.4h
(h) From
h2 = 3.4h but h = (h1 - h2)
h2 = 3.4 (h1 - h2)
h2 = 3.4 h1 – 3.4h2
h2 + 3.4 h2 = 3.4h1
4.4 h2 = 3.4h1
𝟒.𝟒 𝐡𝟏
=
𝟑.𝟒 𝐡𝟐
But
𝐡𝟏 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐡
= = refractive index ( 𝜼)
𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐡

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

𝟒.𝟒 𝐡𝟏
Refractive index (𝜼)= = = 1.3
𝟑.𝟒 𝐡𝟐
(i) Real and apparent depth
(j) Condition
 Light should travel from rare to dense medium
 Light should enter oblique

[Link] are provided with a white sheet of paper, drawing board, plane mirror with
holder, transparent ruler, protractor, optical pins, office pins and thumb pins.
Proceed as follows
(a) Put the drawing paper on the drawing board using thumb pins and draw too
straight lines AB and CD to enclose an angle of ∝ = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 . Draw line through
O making 𝟕𝟓𝟎 with AB. Then insert two optical pins P and Q on this line as
seen in figure below.

(b) Place the reflecting

surface of the mirror along AB. Place other optical pins R and S to appear in
straight line with images of P and Q. Remove the pins R and S and join the
line ORS.
(c) Turn the mirror through an angle ∝ = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 so that its reflecting surface lies
along CD. Stick pins T and U to appear in straight line with the images of P
and Q. join the lines OUT. Record the angle 𝜷𝟎 = formed by RS and UT.
(d) Repeat the experiment for ∝ = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 , 𝟐𝟎𝟎 , 𝟐𝟓𝟎 and 𝟑𝟎𝟎
(e) Tabulate your results

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(f) Plot the graph of 𝜷𝟎 against ∝𝟎

(g) Determine the slope of your graph
(h) Find the reciprocal of the slope
(i) What does the answer in (h) above represent?
(j) From your graph ,deduce the relationship ∝𝟎 and 𝜷𝟎
Note
Attach your diagrams with the answer booklet.
Solution.
(e) Table of results

∝𝟎 𝜷𝟎
10 20.2
15 30
20 40.2
25 50.4
30 60.1

(f) The graph of 𝜷𝟎 against ∝𝟎

Scale:
Horizontal scale 1cm represent 𝟐𝟎
Vertical scale 1cm represent 𝟓𝟎

(g) Slope from the graph

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

∆𝜷𝟎
m= =
∆𝜶𝟎
𝟏
(h) Reciprocal of the slope = = 0.5
𝟐
(i) The answer in (h) represent that the angle of reflection 𝜷𝟎 is twice of the
angle of incidence 𝜶𝟎 for double reflection in rotation of plane mirror.
∆𝜷𝟎
(j) From slope , m =
∆𝜶𝟎
∆𝜷𝟎
2= 𝟎
∆𝜶
𝜷 = 2𝜶……….required relation

[Link] are provided with a plane mirror, a Ruler, protract, Drawing, board, Optical
pins, Office pins and plain paper.

Proceed as follows:
(a) On the plain paper provided, draw a line 13cm from the top of the paper and
call it M1M2 Pin your paper on the board provided and place the reflecting
surface of the mirror along the M1M2 as seen in figure below.
I

A plane mirror

M1 N
M2

O
(b) Insert pin O as an object at 4.0cm in front of the mirror. Place pins P1 and P2
so as to appear in one straight line with the image of object O seen in the
plane mirror.
(c) Remove pins P1and P2 using other pins, place pins P3 and P4 so as to appear
in astraight line with the image of object O in the other side see figure above.
(d) Remove the mirror and pins. Draw lines joining P1 and P2 on one side and
the other joining P3 and P4 on the other side of object O, extend both lines to
meet at I on the other side of the M1M2.
(e) Join OI, a line cutting the reflecting surface at N.
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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(f) Repeat this procedure for the distance of an object being 6,8,10 and 12cm

(g) On all the diagrams drawn:

(i) Measure the distance ON and NL.
(ii) Comment on the distance obtained in (g) (i)
(iii) What is the nature of image? Give reasons for your answer.
(iv) State four characteristics of the image you obtained.
(v) What is the aim of this experiment?
(vi) Mention and state the law governing the experiment
(Solution available to the book )
[Link] aim of experiment was in figure 2 is to determine the
critical angle A of given glass block.
a. Fix the white sheet of the paper on drawing board using drawing pin
b. Place the glass block provided on a sheet of a paper with
its largest face upper most and trace its outline EFGH.
c. Remove the block and on its outline, draw a perpendicular BI.
d. Draw a ray AB such that angle β=350

e. Replace the glass block

f. Stick two pin P1 and P2 along AB and looking through
the glass block from the opposite face HG. Stick two
other pins P3 and P4 in the line with P1 and P2 .remove
the glass block.
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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

g. Draw a straight line DC through P3 and P4 and join up C to B

h. Measure the angle of refraction r and then calculate the value of cosβ
and sin r
i. Repeat the procedure (d) to (h) for value of β=450,550,650and 750
j. Tabulate your results
k. Plot a graph of sin r against cos𝛽
l. Determine the gradient G of the graph
m. Calculate the value of the critical angle A from G = sin A
Solution
(d) Table of results

(e) The graph of sin r against cos𝛽

Scale:
Vertical scale: 1cm represent 0.050.
Horizontal scale: 1cm represent 0.050.

Graph

(f) The gradient G from the graph =

(g) Given G = sin A

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

[Link] aim of this experiment is to find the refractive index of a glass block
Proceed as follows
Place the given glass block in the middle of the drawing paper board. Draw lines
along the upper and lower edge of the glass block of the glass block. Remove the
glass block and extend the lines you have drawn.
Represent the ends of these lines segment as SS1 andTT1 . Draw the normal NN1
to the parallel line SS1 and TT1 as shown in figure below.

Draw the evenly spaced lines from O to represent incident ray at different angles
of incidence 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 from the normal. Stick two pins P1 and P2 as
shown in the diagram as far as apart possible along one of the line drawn to
represent an incident ray. Locate an emergent ray by looking through the block
and stick pins P3 and P4 exactly in the line with images I1 and I2 of
pinsP1 and P2 . Draw the emergent ray and repeat the procedure for all incident
rays you have drawn. Finally draw in the corresponding refracted rays.
(a) Record the angle of incidence i and the measured corresponding angles of
refraction r in a table. Your table of results should include the values of sini
and sinr.
(b) Plot the graph sini against sinr
(c) Determine the slope of the graph

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(d) What is the refractive index of the glass block used?

(e) Mention any source of error in this experiment
Solution
(a) Table of results
i r Sin i Sin r
30 0.5 0.3
40 0.6 0.4
50 30 0.8 0.5
60 0.9 0.6
70 40 0.9 0.6

(b) The graph of sin i against sin r

Scale
Vertical scale; 1cm represent 0.05
Horizontal scale 1cm represent 0.05

Graph

∆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
(c) Slope from the graph , m = =
∆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
(d) Slope = 1.5 represent the value of refractive index
(e) Source of errors
 Poor vision of the experimenter in viewing position of pins image
 Dim light (i.e. Insufficient light )
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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

 Parallax error in reading rule and protractor

[Link] aim of this experiment is to determine the refractive index of 𝜂 of aglass
block.
a. Fix the plane sheet of paper provided on a soft board using opticalpins.
b. Place a glass block on the sheet of paper so that the largest face is top
most as shown in figure below. And trace the outline of the glass
block

c. Stick pins P1 and P2 in the soft board in such a way that the angle of
Incidence i is 250 and make sure that AO is less than one third of AB.
d. Place pins P3 and P4 so that they may appear to be in the line with
theimages of P1 and P2 as observed through face CD of the block.
e. Remove the block and trace the ray through it.
f. Measure and record the distance L
g. Replace the block and repeat procedures (c) to (f) for the angle of
incidence i=350,450,550and 650
h. Tabulate your results including the values of sin2i and 1/L2
i. Plot a graph of sin2 i against 1/L2
j. Determine the slope, S, of your graph and y-intercept
𝐶1 on the of sin2i axis.

40
0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

k. Find the value 𝜂 from the relation 𝜂 = √𝐶1 and breadth b of the glass
√(−𝑆)
block from the relation b =
𝜂
Note: The diagram for question 2 should be attached to answer booklet(s)

Solution
(g) Table of results

(h) The graph of sin2 i against 1/L2

Scale
Vertical scale: 1cm represent 0.20.
Horizontal scale: 1cm represent 0.002(cm-1)

Graph

(i) Slope from the graph, S = -100cm2.

Y-intercept 𝐶1 = 2.2
(j) Value of 𝜂 = √𝐶1 = √2.2 = 1.48 ≈ 1.5
√(−𝑆) √(−(−100)
b= = = 6.7cm
𝜂 1.5

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

[Link] aim of this experiment is to determine the refractive index of glass block for
light passing air to glass
Proceed as follows
N

𝜃 A

B C 𝑃3

𝑃4

(a) Place the rectangular glass block on drawing paper fixed on the board using a
sharp pencil trace the outline of the block. Remove the block and draw a
normal NAB. Near the left end of the block using a protractor measure angle
𝜃 = 200 from the surface of the block. Erect two pins 𝑃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 on this line
at suitable distance apart , replace the block , erect two more pins 𝑃3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃4 at
position which appear to be in a straight lines with the other two as seen
through the block .Again remove the block and draw complete path of the rays
shown above . Measure distance BC and AC.
(b) Repeat procedure above for the values 𝜃 = 300 , 𝜃 = 400 , 𝜃 = 500 and 𝜃 =
600 each time making your drawing on fresh a apart of the drawing paper .

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

Record clearly the values of 𝜃,BC and AC .find also cos 𝜃 and calculate K =
𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐶
(c) Plot a graph of cos 𝜃 against K.
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(d) Determine the refractive index , given that 𝜂 =
𝐾
(e) State any two source of error and precautions taken in this experiment.

[Link] are provided with a rectangular block, soft board, optical pins, protractor and
a white sheet of paper.
Proceed as follows

(a) Place a white sheet of paper on a bench. Put a rectangular glass block on the
white sheet. Trace an outline using a pencil. Erect two pins P and Q on one
side of the glass block. Observe pins P and Q from the opposite side of the
glass block in figure above. Locate pins R and S along the apparent line of
sight of P and Q.
(b) Remove the glass block .Draw line PQ and SR. prolong the lines to meet the
trace for block at A and B respectively. Join A and B with a line. Draw the
normal line at A and B

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(c) Measure the angle of incidence, 𝑖0 and refraction, 𝑟0 at A, and the angles of
incidence 𝑖1 and refraction 𝑟1 at B. repeat the experiment for angles of
incidence 𝑖0 at A as 300 , 400 , 500 and 600 .
Questions
(i) Tabulate your result as shown in table below
𝑖0 𝑖1 𝑟0 𝑟1 Sin𝑖0 sin𝑖1 sin𝑟0 Sin𝑟1

(ii) Plot the graphs of sin 𝑖0 versus sin 𝑟0 and sin 𝑖1 versus sin 𝑟1
(iii) Find the slopes of the two graphs
(iv) What is the physical meaning of each slope?
(v) What is the aim of this experiment?
Solution

(i) Graphs
The graphs of sin 𝑖0 versus sin 𝑟0
Scale;
Vertical scale; 1cm represent 0.050
Horizontal scale; 1cm represent 0.050

 The graphs of sin 𝑖1 versus sin 𝑟1

Scale;
Vertical scale; 1cm represent 0.050
Horizontal scale; 1cm represent 0.050

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(ii) Slope of each graph is indicated after graph (see)

(iii) Slope 𝑚0 represent refractive index of the glass and slope
𝑚1 reprent refractive index of air.
(iv) The aim of the experiment was to determine the refractive index
of glass block and air.
[Link] are provided with glass, drawing pins, soft drawing board, 4 optical pins and
white paper and drawing equipment. proceed as follows :
(a) Fix the white sheet of paper on drawing board using drawing pin
(b) Put the glass block with one of its largest surfaces top most on top of the plane
paper
(c) Trace the outline of the glass block on the paper by using the pencil. Remove
the glass block and draw a normal extending to opposite as shown in figure
below.

𝑃3

x 𝑃4

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(d) Draw a line making an angle of incidence𝑖 = 300 . Stick two pins, 𝑃1 and 𝑃2
in a reasonable distance a part on the drawn line.
(e) Replace the glass block on the outline and stick two more pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 at a
positions which will make all pins𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 appear to be to be in
straight line as seen when observed through a glass block from opposite side.
(f) Remove the glass block and draw the complete path of the ray through the
block. Measure and record the angle of refraction r and the distance x.
(g) Repeat the procedure in part (a) to (f) for angles 𝑖 = 400 , 500 , 600 and
700 and record your data as shown in table below .

i r Tan r x (cm)
300
400
500
600
700

(h) Measure and record the dimensions of glass block as follows

Block length ………………….width…………….thickness……………
(i) Using the data in the table
(i) Plot the graph of x against tanr
(ii) Determine the gradient of the graph
(j) Explain what the value of gradient means
(k) State source of errors in this experiment
(l) Mention any two precautions to be taken in doing this experiment.
Solution
(available to the book ) get it to have this solution

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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

[Link] aim of the experiment is to determine the resistance of an electrical conductor

using ammeter and a voltmeter

Battery

(a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure above. Close the key, K. adjust the
rheostat, Rh so that a small current passes through the conductor of unknown
resistance𝑅𝑥 .
(b) Record this current I and potential difference V between the ends of 𝑅𝑋
(c) Adjust the rheostat again to give a slightly higher current through𝑅𝑋 . Measure
the current I and potential difference as in (b)
(d) Repeat the experiment to obtain five readings. Tabulate your results as shown
below.

Current, I(A) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

P.d,V(volt)
(e) Plot the graph of V against I
(f) Determine the slope of the graph
(g) What is the physical meaning of the slope?
(h) Deduce the value of 𝑅𝑋
(i) State the law applied in the experiment
(j) Mention two condition which govern the law stated?
(k) State any two sources of errors and precautions taken in this experiment
Solution
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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

(d) Table of results

Current, I(A) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
P.d,V(volt) 0. 0.4 0.8
(e) The graph of V against I

(f) Slope from the graph ,………………..

(g) Slope represent the resistance of the conductor

(h) The law applied is ohm’s law , which states that “when the temperature and
other physical factor remains constant ,the current passing through the
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference”
(i) Condition governing the law
 Conductor should be subjected at constant temperature
 Conductor should not be elastic
(j) Source of errors and precautions
 Loose connection which affect current flow
Precaution avoid loose connections
 Improper calibration of ammeter and voltmeter
Precaution; check the calibration of the device before use

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[Link] have been provided with a cell E, the key K, resistance box R, ammeter A
and the voltmeter V.
Proceed as follows
(a) Set the circuit as shown in figure.

(b) With the key open, observe and record the reading E on the voltmeter.
(c) Set the resistance R equal to 7Ω, close the key and the record the reading of
current I flowing through the circuit and potential difference V across the cell.
(d) Repeat the procedure in 2(c) with R = 5Ω, 4Ω, 2Ω and 1Ω. For each case
record the correspond values of I and V.
Questions
(i) Prepare the table of values including I(A) , V(v) , and (E-V) (v)
(ii) Plot the graph of (E-V) in volts against I in amperes
(iii)Compute the slope of the graph plotted
(iv) What is the physical meaning of the slope in (iii)
(v) If the house alarm is rated 3Ω is connected in the circuit, determine the
current that must flow through the circuit alarm to operate it.
Solution

[Link] aim of the experiment was to determine the resistivity of the material of the
wire provided
Procedure
(a) Use the micrometer screw gauge to determine the diameter of the given wire and
hence find its cross section area in [Link] the circuit as shown in figure. C
is the crocodile clip. Measure the length of the wire L = 100cm and clip it so that
the current flows across the wire is. Record the voltmeter reading V.

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(b) Repeat the procedure in (a) above with crocodile clip at L = 80cm, 60cm, 40cm
and 20cm. Record the corresponding voltmeter reading in each case.
Questions
1 1
(i) Tabulate the values of L, V , and ( the length L should be in metre)
𝐿 𝑉
1 1
(ii) Plot the graph of (𝑉 −1 ) against (𝑚−1 )
𝑉 𝐿
(iii) Determine the slope S.
1
(iv) Find the value of V for which = 0 and state its physical meaning.
𝐿
1 𝐴 1 1
(v) Determine the value of resistivity of the wire given that, = + .
𝑉 𝜌𝐸 𝐿 𝐸
Solution
(a) Diameter of the wire = 0.00038m
𝜋𝑑 2 3.14 ×0.00038×0.00038
(b) Area = = = 1.13354 × 10−7 𝑚2
4 4

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(i) Table of results

L(m) V (v) 1 1
(𝑚−1 ) ( 𝑉 −1 )
𝐿 𝑉
1 2.4 1 0.41
0.8 2.3 1.25 0.44
0.6 2.2 1.77 0.45
0.4 1.9 2.5 0.53
0.2 1.2 5 0.7

1 1
(ii) The graph of (𝑉 −1 ) against (𝑚−1 )
𝑉 𝐿

1
∆
𝑉
(iii) Slope from the graph 1 =
∆
𝐿

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1
(iv) The value of V for which = 0
𝐿
Compare with the equation
1 𝐴 1 1
=. +
𝑉 𝜌𝐸 𝐿 𝐸
1
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 , c = = 0.3
𝐸
1
When =0
𝐿
1 1
=
𝑉 𝐸
1
= 0.3
𝑉
𝑉 = 3.3𝑉
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉 = 3.3𝑉
The physical meaning of V = 3.3v represent the e.m.f of the cell used.
(v) To determine the resistivity of the wire
1 𝐴 1 1
= + .
𝑉 𝜌𝐸 𝐿 𝐸
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴
m= ,
𝜌𝐸
Area, A = 1.13354× 10−7 𝑚2 .
e.m.f, E = 3V
Slope, m = 0.07
𝐴 1.13354 ×10−7
Then, resistivity 𝜌 = = = 4.9 × 10−7 Ωm
𝑚𝐸 0.07 ×3.3
[Link] aim of the experiment is to determine the internal resistance r and the e.m.f
E of the dry cell D.
(a) You are provided with a dry cell, an ammeter, voltmeter, key and resistance
box.
(b) Connect the apparatus so that you can get reading of and corresponding reading
of voltmeter which was to be connected parallel to the dry cell labelled D.
(c) Set the resistance box to be 1Ω, read and record the ammeter and voltmeter
reading.
(d) Repeat the procedure in (c) for R = 2,3,4 and 5ohms
(e) Draw the circuit diagram of arrangement used
(f) Draw a graph of V against I
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(g) Write down the equation represented by the graph in terms of E, r ,v and I
(h) From the graph find
(i) The value of electromotive force
(ii) The internal resistance , r
(iii) The maximum current the cell can deliver to the circuit
Solution
(d) Table of results
(e) The circuit diagram arrangement

(f) The graph of V against I

Scale:
Vertical scale 1cm represent 0.1V
Horizontal scale 1cm represent 0.25A

(g) From E = I(R + r)

E = IR + Ir
E = V + Ir
V = E –Ir
V = -Ir + E

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The equation of the graph V = -Ir + E

(h) (i) From the graph E is obtained from vertical intercept ,E = 1.48v
(ii) Internal resistance = slope of the graph
∆V(V)
Slope = = -0.48Ω
∆I(A)
From equation, slope = -r
Then
– r = -0.48Ω
r = 0.48Ω
(iii)The maximum current the cell can deliver to the circuit is obtained from
horizontal axis of the graph (I-intercepts ) , I = 3.075A

[Link] are provided with ; a cell of e.m.f , E; a key K , an ammeter , A; a voltmeter,

V ; connecting wires , a resistance box , R ; a wire , W and micrometer screw
gauge .
Procedure
(a) Set up the apparatus as shown in figure below

(b) Measure the length XY of a wire, W equal 17cm and Set R to 1Ω then close
the key .Read and record the ammeter reading, I in amperes and voltmeter
reading, V in volts. Open the key after taking the reading.
(c) Repeat the procedure in (b) above for the values of R = 1Ω, 1Ω, 1Ω and 1Ω,
keeping the length XY of the wire constant. Read and record the
corresponding value of current, I and voltage, V.
Questions
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(i) Tabulate the results

(ii) Plot the graph of voltage, V against current, I.
(iii) Compute the slope ,S of the graph
(iv) State the physical meaning of the slope
(v) Use the information obtained from the graph to determine the resistivity
of the material of wire, W.

Solution
(i) Table of results
Resistance ,R(Ω) 1 2 3 4 5
Current, I(A) 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
Voltage, V(volts) 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

(ii) The graph of voltage ,V against current ,I

Graph

∆𝑉
(iii) Slope from the graph , S = = 0.75V/A= 0.75Ω
∆𝐼
(iv) Slope represent the resistance of the wire
𝑅𝐴
(v) Resistivity , 𝜌 =
𝐿
L = 17cm = 0.17m
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𝜋𝑑 2
Area, A =
4
d = 0.38mm = 0.00038m
R = 0.75Ω
Then
0.75 ×3.14×(0.00038)2
𝜌=
4×0.17
−7
𝜌 = 4.912 × 10 Ω𝑚

57. You are provided with knife edge, a metre rule, a 100g mass, a 50g mass and
unknown mass, w.
y x

100g 50g

Proceed as follows to find the mass o f w.

(a) Balance a metre rule on a knife edge freely and mark the centre of gravity S
of the ruler

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(b) Without changing the position of the knife edge put a mass of 100g at a
distance y = 8cm from the centre of gravity S of the ruler. Then put the mass
of 50g together with w at distance x from the centre of gravity to make the
ruler balanced horizontally. Record the distance x.
(c) Repeat the experiment for y = 12cm, 16cm, 20cm and 24cm.
(d) (i) prepare a table of results for y(m) and x(m)
(ii) Plot a graph of y against x
(iii) Determine the slope , S of the graph
(iv) What is the nature of the graph? Illustrate mathematically
100 50+𝑊
(e) If the equation governing this experiment is = , use the graph
𝑋 𝑦
slope to find the value of w.
(f) This experiment illustrates the function of a certain device in daily life.
Name the device
(g) State any two sources of errors and precautions to be taken
Solution
(i) Table of results
Y(cm) 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24

X(cm) 0.144 0.214 0.288 0.364 0.466

(ii) The graph of y(cm) against x(cm)

Graph

∆
(iii) Slope , s =
∆𝑥
(iv) The nature of graph
From principle of moment
∑ 𝑐. 𝑚 = ∑ 𝑠. 𝑐. 𝑚
100y = (50 +w) x
50+𝑤 50+𝑤
y=( )x, where = slope
100 100
So the nature of the graph y = mx, is straight line through the origin

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100 50+𝑊
(e) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚, =
𝑋 𝑦
50+𝑤
y=( 100
)x
50+𝑤
Slope, S=
100
50+𝑤
0.571 =
100
W = 6g
(f) Beam balance
(g) Sources of errors
Source of errors Precautions

Air resistance Avoid conducting experiment in

wind (close the window)

Non-zero mark on metre rule Use calibrated metre rule

[Link] aim of the experiment in the figure below is to determine the mass 𝑀0 of
the metre rule provided.
Settings
y

x
Prism

50g

(a) Place a metre rule provided on the edge of a prism .Balance the metre rule
and record the value L0 .
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(b) Hang a 50g mass on the emtre rule as shown in figure above at a point such
as X = 5cm . Move the metre rule until it balances. Record the value of y
when the metre rule is balanced.
(c) Move the 50g mass to a position where x = 10cm, 15cm, 25cm, 30cm and
40cm. Measure the corresponding values of y for each values of x when the
arrangement is balanced .
(d) Plot the graph of y against x.
(e) Determine the slope ,S, of your graph and calculate the mass 𝑀0 of the metre
𝑆𝑀0
rule using the relationship , +𝑆 =1
50
(f) From your graph, find the value of y when X = 0 and call it𝑦0 . Calculate the
𝑦
value of constant K , using the equation K = 0 (𝐾 + 50)
𝐿0
(g) What is the physical meaning of constant K ,
(h) State one source of error and one precaution to be taken in doing the
experiment.
Solution
(a) L0 = 50cm
(c) Table of results
X(cm) Y(cm)

5 36.2

10 37.8

15 39.4

25 42.4

30 44

40 47

(d) Graph
A GRAPH OF y (cm) AGAINST x (cm)
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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

SCALE;
Vertical scale: 1cm represent 5cm
Horizontal scale: 1cm represent 5cm

∆𝑦(𝑐𝑚)
(e) From the graph, use any point, get slope, S = ………..
∆𝑥(𝑐𝑚)
𝑆𝑀0
Use equation + 𝑆 = 1, put S = 0.3 get Mo = 116.6g
50

𝑦0
(f) When x = 0 the value of yo = 35cm. value of K = (𝐾 + 50)
𝐿0
35
K= (𝐾 + 50) = 116.7g
50
(g) The physical meaning of the constant K is the mass (𝑀0 ) of the metre rule.
(h) Source of errors
 Parallax error in reading of the metre rule.
Precaution
Taking reading vertically to avoid parallax error

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 Wind blowing through windows and doors when balancing metre rule
on prism.
Precaution
Close windows and doors
[Link] aim of the experiment is to define the density of a solid steel material using
eureka can.
Procedure
(i) Fill the Eureka can provided with water until it over flows
(ii) Leave the water to overflow until the last drop

(iii) Tie a mass M equal to 100g using a thread or a string and immerse into a
water in a Eureka can.
(iv) Collect the water displaced that over flows in a measuring cylinder
provided.
(v) Repeat the procedure in (iii) and (iv ) above using the mass of 200g, 300g,
400g and 500g
(vi) Tabulate your results
Questions
(a) Plot the graph mass against volume of water collected.
(b) Calculate the slope of your graph.
(c) What is the physical meaning of the slope
(d) State any two source of errors and the precaution to be taken when
performing this experiment.
Solution
(vi) Table of results
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0685621967 PAULO MWAMPAMBA UNDERSTANDING PHYSICS BOOKS

Mass (g) 100 200 300 400 500

Volume 14.0 28.0 41.0 54.00 66.00

3
(𝑐𝑚 )
(a) The graph of mass against volume

Graph

∆𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
(a) Slope = =
∆𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
(b) Physical meaning of the slope was the density of the solid steel material

(c) Sources of errors and precautions

Source of error Precaution

Error due to meniscus reading of Make sure you observe

measuring cylinder horizontally to the measuring
cylinder reading

Error due to surface tension or Remove the last drop by touching

hiding force that holds last drop the mouth of eureka can using
measuring cylinder

[Link] are provided with a metre rule, a knife edge, two string of length 100cm
each and two weigh 𝑊1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊2 of masses 50g and 100g respectively.
Proceed as follows:
(a) Balance a metre rule on a knife edge, put a mark and write G at the
balancing point using pencil or piece of chalk. Measure and record the
length l, width w and thickness, t of a metre rule using a vernier calliper.
(b) Place the metre rule on a knife edge so that knife edge is at 60cm of your
metre rule (see figure below). Suspend weight 𝑊2 of 100g on the right hand
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side of the knife edge. Adjust 𝑊2 until the metre rule balances horizontally.
Read and record lengths “b” and “c” as seen in figure (a) below.

(i) Suspend weight 𝑊1 of 50g on left hand side of the knife edge at the
position 47cm and adjust weight 𝑊2 until metre rule balances
horizontally as seen in figure (b) below read and record the lengths “a”
and “b”.

(ii) Repeat the procedure in (b) by adjusting the position of 𝑊1 to the left at
the interval of 3cm to obtain other four (4) readings.
(c) Tabulate your results as shown below.
a(cm) b(cm)

(d) Plot the graph of “b” against “a”

(e) What is the nature of the graph?
(f) Calculate the slope “S” of the graph

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(g) (i) read the b-intercept

𝑊 𝑊
(ii) Given that b = Sa + × 𝑐What does ( )c represent in your graph?
𝑊2 𝑊 2
𝑊𝐶
(iii) Calculate the value of W using the relation 𝑊2 = . What does W
9.5𝑐𝑚
represent?
𝑙×𝑤×𝑡
(h) (i) Find the value of the ratio P =
𝑚
NOTE: The mass m of the rule can be obtained by calculations.
(ii) What is the physical meaning of the value of P?
(i) State a possible source of error in this experiment.
(j) How can you minimize error in (i)
(k) State the aim of this experiment?
Solution
(c) Table of results
a (cm) 13 16 19 22 25

b (cm) 19.5 24

(d) The graph of b against a

Scale;
Horizontal scale; 1cm represent 2cm
Vertical scale; 1cm represent 2cm

(e) The nature of graph is straight line with b –intercept

∆𝑏
(f) Slope of the graph = = 0.5
∆𝑎
(g) (i) b - intercept = 11.5cm
𝑊
(ii) ( )c represent b-intercept
𝑊2

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𝑊𝐶
(iii)Given 𝑊2 =
9.5𝑐𝑚
𝑊2 = 100g
𝑐 = 10𝑐𝑚
Then
𝑊 × 10𝑐𝑚
100g =
9.5𝑐𝑚
W = 95g
W represent the mass of given ruler
𝑙×𝑤×𝑡
(h) (i) given that P =
𝑚
𝑙 = 100cm
w = 2.6cm
t = 0.7cm
100×2.6×0.7
P=
95
3
1.9cm /g.
(ii) The physical meaning of P is the reciprocal of density of metre rule.
(i) Possible source of error in this experiment might be air resistance from
window and doors
(j) This can be minimized by closing windows before starting experiment
(k) The aim of the experiment was to determine the mass of metre rule by a
method of principle of moment

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