Historical Development
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907), Russian chemist at St. Petersburg University, devised the
first successful periodic table in 1869. His system arranged the 63 known elements by
increasing atomic weight while placing elements with similar properties in vertical
columns.
Key Innovations
Predicted properties of missing elements (eka-silicon)
Left gaps for undiscovered elements
Tested predictions: When germanium was discovered, its properties matched
Mendeleev's predictions exactly
Atomic weights revised: Based on proton number (atomic number) rather than
atomic weight
Modern Periodic Table Structure
Arrangement: 118 elements ordered by increasing proton number
Groups (vertical columns):
Group I: Alkali metals
Group II: Alkaline earth metals
Group VII: Halogens
Group 0/VIII: Noble gases
Periods (horizontal rows): Number of occupied electron shells
Electronic Configuration Patterns
Group number = number of outer electrons (except Group 0) Period number = number
of occupied electron shells
Examples:
Sodium (11): 2,8,1 → Group I, Period 3
Chlorine (17): 2,8,7 → Group VII, Period 3
Magnesium (12): 2,8,2 → Group II, Period 3
Metallic Character Trend
Across periods: Gradual change from metal → metalloid → non-metal Down groups:
Metallic character increases as outer electrons become further from nucleus
Group I: The Alkali Metals ⚡
Characteristic Properties
Elements: Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Caesium (Cs),
Francium (Fr)
Physical Properties:
Soft metals: Lithium hardest, potassium softest
Low densities: Li (0.63 g/cm³), K (0.86 g/cm³)
Shiny surfaces when freshly cut
Low melting points: Li (181°C), K (64°C)
Chemical Properties:
Extremely reactive - stored under oil to prevent air/water contact
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Form alkaline solutions with water
Characteristic flame colors when burned
Reactivity with Water
Observation: Vigorous reaction producing alkaline solution and hydrogen gas
Examples:
Lithium + water: Gentle fizzing
Sodium + water: Rapid fizzing, melts to silver ball
Potassium + water: Very vigorous, may ignite hydrogen
Trend: Reactivity increases down group - francium would be most reactive
Group I: The Alkali Metals ⚡
Properties and Reactivity
Group I elements (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, francium) show
increasing reactivity down the group. This occurs because:
Atomic size increases - outer electron gets further from nucleus
Electron becomes easier to remove as it experiences less attraction to the
nucleus
Ionization energy decreases down the group
Reactions with Oxygen
All alkali metals react vigorously with air to form metal oxides: 4Li(s) + O 2 (g)
→
2Li2 O (s)
These oxides react with water to form alkaline solutions: Li 2 O (s)
+ H2 O (l) →
2LiOH (aq)
Reactions with Water
Increasing vigor down the group:
Lithium: Gentle fizzing
Sodium: Rapid fizzing, melts to silver ball
Potassium: Very vigorous, may ignite hydrogen
2K (s) + 2H2 O(l) → 2K OH (aq) + H2 (g)
Reactions with Halogens
Extremely vigorous reactions forming metal halides: 2N a(s) + C l 2 (g) → 2N aCl(s)
📊
Electronic Configuration Patterns
All Group I elements have one electron in outer shell:
Sodium: 2,8,1
Potassium: 2,8,8,1
During reactions: They lose the outer electron to achieve noble gas configuration,
requiring energy to overcome electrostatic attraction between electron and positive
nucleus.
Group II: The Alkaline Earth Metals 🌍
Characteristics
Includes beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, radium. Key properties:
Harder than Group I metals
Silvery when pure and clean
Tarnish quickly in air
Good electrical conductors
Characteristic flame colors for their oxides
Reactivity Trend
Less reactive than Group I metals, with reactivity increasing down the group.
Example reaction: 2M g(s) + O 2 (g)
→ 2M gO(s)
Group VII: The Halogens 🧪
Physical Properties
Halogen Color State
Chlorine Pale green Gas
Bromine Brown Liquid
Iodine Grey-black Solid
Trend: Color darkens and density increases going down group.
Chemical Properties
Exist as diatomic molecules (F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂)
React with water but less vigorously than Group I metals
Form acidic solutions with hydrogen: C l (g) + H O(l) → H Cl(aq) +
2
2
H OCl(aq)
Reactivity Pattern
Opposite to Groups I and II - reactivity decreases down group because:
Incoming electron gains less easily in larger atoms
More electron shells shield nucleus from incoming electron
Weaker attraction between nucleus and electron to be gained
Order of reactivity: Chlorine > Bromine > Iodine
Displacement Reactions 🔁
A more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halogen from its compound:
2K I (aq) + C l2 (g) → 2K Cl(aq) + I2 (aq)
Color changes help identify displacement:
Chlorine water: Colorless
Bromine water: Orange
Iodine solution: Brown
Oxidation-Reduction Process
Iodide ions oxidized: Lose electrons, form iodine molecules
Chlorine reduced: Gains electrons, forms chloride ions
Group VIII: The Noble Gases 🎈
Properties
Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon - discovered 1894-1900 by Sir William
Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh.
Key characteristics:
Colorless gases
Monatomic (exist as individual atoms: He, Ne, Ar)
Very unreactive - no compounds of helium, neon, argon known
Used to fill light bulbs (prevent tungsten reaction with air)
Electronic Configuration
All have stable electronic configurations - full outer electron shells:
Helium: 2
Neon: 2,8
Argon: 2,8,8
Why unreactive: Other elements attempt to achieve these stable configurations during
chemical reactions.
Transition Elements 🔷
General Properties
Includes copper, iron, nickel, zinc, chromium - found in central block of periodic table.
Physical properties:
High densities compared to Groups I and II
High melting points (except mercury - liquid at room temperature)
Hard and strong
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Less reactive with oxygen/water (corrode more slowly)
Catalytic activity (iron used in Haber process)
Variable Oxidation States
Form simple ions with different charges:
Copper: Cu⁺ (Cu(I)) and Cu²⁺ (Cu(II))
Iron: Fe²⁺ (Fe(II)) and Fe³⁺ (Fe(III))
Complex ions with high oxidation numbers:
Chromium: Cr₂O₇²⁻ (Cr(VI) - dichromate ion)
Manganese: MnO₄⁻ (Mn(VII) - manganate ion)
Metals and Their Uses 🛠️
Reactivity vs. Applications
General principle: Less reactive metals have more applications
Metal Reactivity Key Uses
Gold Least reactive Jewelry, electrical contacts,
leaf decoration