Chapter (2)
Physical Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
2.1 Introduction
The most important material in a hydraulic system is the working fluid. Hydraulic fluid
characteristics have a crucial effect on equipment performance and life. It is important to
use a clean, high-quality fluid in order to achieve efficient hydraulic system operation.
Most modern hydraulic fluids are complex compounds that have been carefully prepared
to meet their demanding tasks. In addition to having a base fluid, hydraulic fluids contain
special additives to provide desired characteristics. Essentially, a hydraulic fluid has four
primary functions:
1. To transmit power
2. To lubricate moving parts
3. To seal clearances between mating parts
4. To dissipate heat
To accomplish properly these primary functions and be practical from a safety and cost
point of view, a hydraulic fluid should have the following properties:
1. Good lubricity
2. Ideal viscosity
3. Chemical and environmental stability
4. Compatibility with system materials
5. High degree of incompressibility
6. Fire resistance
7. Good heat transfer capability
8. Low density
9. Foam resistance
10. Nontoxicity
1
11. Low volatility
12. Inexpensive
13. Ready availability
This is a challenging list, and no single hydraulic fluid possesses all of these desirable
characteristics. The fluid power designer must select the fluid that comes the closest to
being ideal overall for a particular application.
Hydraulic fluids must also be changed periodically, the frequency depending not only on
the fluid but also on the operating conditions. Laboratory analysis is the best method for
determining when a fluid should be changed. Generally speaking, a fluid should be changed
when its viscosity and acidity increase due to fluid breakdown or contamination.
Preferably, the fluids should be changed while the system is at operating temperature. In
this way, most of the impurities are in suspension and will be drained off.
2.2 Fluids: liquid and gases
2.2.1 Liquid
The term fluid refers to both gases and liquids.
A liquid is a fluid that, for a given mass, will have a definite volume independent of the
shape of its container. This means that even though a liquid will assume the shape of the
container, it will fill only that part of the container whose volume equals the volume of the
quantity of the liquid.
Liquids are considered to be incompressible so that their volume does not change with
pressure changes. This is not exactly true, but the change in volume due to pressure changes
is so small that it is ignored for most engineering applications. In a liquid, chunks of
molecules can move relative to each other, but the volume remains relatively constant
because of the strong cohesive forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the
shape of the container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
Free surface: a boundary layer between the liquid and the air above it.
2
2.2.2 Gases
Gases are fluids that are readily compressible. In addition, their volume will vary to fill
the vessel containing them. This is illustrated in where a gas is allowed to enter an empty
vessel. As shown, the gas molecules always fill the entire vessel. A gas expands until it
encounters the walls of the container and fills the entire available space. This is because
the gas molecules are widely spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small.
Unlike liquids, gases cannot form a free surface. Gases are greatly influenced by the
pressure to which they are subjected. An increase in pressure causes the volume of the gas
to decrease, and vice versa.
Air is the only gas commonly used in fluid power systems because it is inexpensive and
readily available. Air also has the following advantages as a power fluid:
1. It is fire resistant.
2. It is not messy.
3. It can be exhausted back into the atmosphere.
Its disadvantages include:
1. Due to its compressibility, it cannot be used in an application where accurate
positioning or rigid holding is required.
2. Because it is compressible, it tends to be sluggish.
3. Air can be corrosive, since it contains oxygen and water.
4. A lubricant must be added to lubricate valves and actuators.
5. High pressures cannot be used due to the explosion dangers involved if components
such as air tanks should rupture.
2.3 Properties of hydraulic fluid
2.3.1 Weight
All objects, whether solids or fluids, are pulled toward the center of the earth by a force of
attraction. This force is called the weight of the object and is proportional to the object’s
mass, as defined by:
3
F (N) = W (N) = mg (kg.m/s2)
2.3.2 Density (mass density)
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
𝑚
ρ= (kg/m3)
𝑉
2.3.3 Specific weight (weight density)
The weight per unit volume.
𝑊
γ= 𝑉
𝑚∗𝑔
γ= = ρg (N/m3)
𝑉
2.3.4 Specific gravity (density ratio)
The ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of some standard substance at a specified
temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which ρH2O =1000 kg/m3)
2.3.5 Force, pressure and head
The concept of pressure must be thoroughly mastered in order to clearly understand fluid
power. In fluid power systems it is pressure rather than force that is transmitted equally in
all directions. Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Hence, pressure is the amount of
force acting over a unit area, as indicated by
Since the Pascal unit is a very small unit, the bar is commonly used:
4
Gage, vacuum and absolute pressures.
Figure (2.1): gage, vacuum and absolute pressures
2.3.6 Temperature comparisons
The mathematical relationship between the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales is
2.3.7 Pascal’s law
Pascal's law reveals the underlying principle of how fluids transmit power. It states that the
pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions. This law
forms the basis for understanding the relationship between force, pressure and area, which
can be mathematically expressed as:
Force = pressure* area
5
The transmitted pressure acts with equal force on every unit area of the containing vessel
and in a direction at right angle to the surface of the vessel exposed to the liquid.
Pascal's law can be illustrated by the following example.
A bottle is filled with a liquid, which is not compressible. A force of 4 N is applied to the
stopper whose surface area is 3 cm2. Let's assume that the area of the bottle bottom is 60
cm2. If the stopper is inserted into the bottle mouth, with a force of 4 N such that it makes
contact with the liquid, then the pressure exerted by the stopper on the liquid in the bottle
is given by:
This pressure will be transmitted undiminished to every square area of the bottle. The
bottom of the bottle having an area of 60 cm2 will be subjected to an additional force of:
This force could break most bottles. This shows why a glass bottle filled with liquid can
break if the stopper is forced into its mouth.
Figure (2.2) illustrates this example better. It also substantiates the fact that pressure does
not depend on the shape and size of the container.
6
Figure (2.2): Demonstration of Pascal’s law
Analysis of hydraulic press
A fluid power system (like any other power system) cannot create energy. This is in
accordance with the conservation energy law. As shown in figure (2.3), a downward input
force F1 is applied to the small diameter piston (1), which has an area A1. This produces an
oil pressure P1 at the bottom of piston (l). This pressure is transmitted through the oil to the
large-diameter piston (2), which has an area A2. The pressure P2 at piston (2) pushes up on
the piston to create an output force F2.
By Pascal’s law, P1 = P2. Since pressure equals force divided by area, we have:
Thus force amplification occurs from the input to the output of the press if the output piston
area is greater than the input piston area. The force ratio F2/F1 equals the piston area ratio
A2/Al. However, we will next show that the output piston does not move as far as does the
input piston. The ratio of the piston movements can be determined by assuming the oil to
be incompressible. Thus, the volume of oil displaced by the input piston equals that for the
output piston:
7
Where S1 = the movement of piston 1.
S2 = the movement of piston 2.
The equation shows that the large output piston does not travel as far as the small input
piston. Notice that the piston stroke ratio S2/ S1 equals the piston area ratio A1/A2. Thus,
for a piston area ratio of 2, the output force increases by a factor of 2, but the output motion
decreases by a factor of 2. Hence, in a hydraulic press we do not get something for nothing.
The output force is greater than the input force, but the output movement is less than the
input movement.
Now recall from physics that energy equals the product of force and the distance moved
by the force. The last equation states that the energy input to the hydraulic press equals the
energy output from the press". This result occurs because the force-amplification factors
equal the motion-reduction factor. It should be noted that in a real hydraulic press, friction
between the piston and cylindrical bore surface will produce frictional energy losses. This
causes the output energy actually to be less than the input energy. This loss of energy is
taken into account when the Bernoulli energy equation is used to solve hydraulic system
problems.
8
Figure (2.3): Operation of hydraulic press
2.3.8 Bulk modulus
The highly favorable horsepower-to-weight ratio and the stiffness of hydraulic systems
make them the frequent choice for most high-power applications. The stiffness of a
hydraulic system is directly related to the incompressibility of the oil. Bulk modulus is a
measure of this incompressibility. The higher the bulk modulus, the less compressible or
stiffer the fluid. Mathematically the bulk modulus is defined by next equation, where the
minus sign accounts for the fact that as the pressure increases, the volume decreases:
Where β = bulk modulus (kPa),
ΔP = change in pressure (kPa).
ΔV = change in volume (m3),
V = original volume (m3).
The bulk modulus of an oil changes somewhat with pressure and temperature, but within
the operating ranges in most fluid power systems, this factor can be neglected.
2.3.9 Viscosity
Viscosity is probably the single most important property of a hydraulic fluid. It is a measure
of the sluggishness with which a fluid moves. When the viscosity is low, the fluid flows
9
easily because it is thin and has a low body. A fluid that flows with difficulty has a high
viscosity and is thick in appearance. In reality, the ideal viscosity for a given hydraulic
system is a compromise. Too high a viscosity results in
1- High resistance to flow, which causes sluggish operation.
2- Increased power consumption due to frictional losses.
3- Increased pressure drop through valves and lines.
4- High temperatures caused by friction.
On the other hand, if the viscosity is too low, the result is
1- Increased leakage losses past seals.
2- Excessive wear due to breakdown of the oil film between moving parts. These parts
may be internal components of a pump or even a sliding valve spool inside its valve
body as shown in Fig. (2.4).
Figure (2.4): Fluid film lubricates and seals moving parts
[Link] Absolute viscosity
The concept of viscosity can be understood by examining two parallel plates separated by
an oil film of thickness y, as illustrated in Fig. (2.5). The lower plate is stationary, whereas
the upper plate moves with a velocity v as it is being pushed by a force F as shown. Due to
10
viscosity, the oil adheres to both surfaces. Thus, the velocity of the layer of fluid in contact
with the lower plate is zero, and the velocity of the layer in contact with the top plate is v.
The consequence is a linearly varying velocity profile whose slope is v/y. The absolute
viscosity of the oil can be represented mathematically:
Figure (2.5): fluid velocity profile between parallel plates due to viscosity
Where
τ= the shear stress in the fluid in units of force per unit area (N/m2); the shear stress
(produced by the force F) causes the sliding of adjacent layers of oil.
v= velocity of the moving plate (m/s);
y= oil film thickness (m);
μ = Greek symbol mu = the absolute viscosity of the oil, (N.s/ m2)
F= force applied to the moving upper plate (N),
A= area of the moving plate surface in contact with the oil m2).
We can, therefore, define absolute viscosity as the force required to move a flat plate of
unit area at unit distance from a fixed plate with unit relative velocity when the space
between the plates is filled with a fluid whose viscosity is to be measured.
11
[Link] Kinematic viscosity
Calculations in hydraulic systems often involve the use of kinematic viscosity rather than
absolute viscosity. Kinematic viscosity (ν) equals absolute viscosity (μ) divided by mass
density (ρ):
[Link] Saybolt viscometer
The viscosity of a fluid is usually measured by a Saybolt viscometer, which is shown
schematically in Fig. (2.6). Basically, this device consists of an inner chamber containing
the sample of oil to be tested. A separate outer compartment, which completely surrounds
the inner chamber, contains a quantity of oil whose temperature is controlled by an
electrical thermostat and heater. A standard orifice is located at the bottom of the center oil
chamber.
When the oil sample is at the desired temperature, the time it takes to fill a 60 cm3 container
through the metering orifice is then recorded. The time (t), measured in seconds, is the
viscosity of the oil in official units called Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS). Since a thick
liquid flows slowly, the SUS viscosity will be higher than for a thin liquid.
Figure (2.6): Saybolt viscometer
12
[Link] Viscosity index
It is important to keep the oil viscosity within a certain range during the system’s operation;
otherwise, the operating conditions will change with temperature. The viscosity index (VI)
of oil is a number used in industry to indicate the effect of temperature variation on
the viscosity of the oil. A low VI signifies a relatively large change of viscosity with
temperature variation. On the other hand, a high VI means relatively little change in
viscosity over a wide temperature range.
The best oil is the one that maintains constant viscosity throughout temperature changes.
An example of the importance of the VI is the need for high VI hydraulic oil for military
aircraft. These systems are exposed to a wide variation of atmospheric temperatures,
ranging from below −18°C at high altitudes to over 45°C on the ground. For proper
operation of these systems, the hydraulic fluid must have sufficiently high VI to perform
its functions at the extremes of the temperature range.
Impact of Viscosity index
Using higher viscosity index (VI) fluids represents an excellent approach to increasing the
efficiency, productivity, and performance of hydraulic systems, especially in outdoor
mobile equipment. Higher VI fluids are more fluid at low and normal operating
temperatures, so hydraulic equipment is ready to work faster after cold start up and the
fluid reaches critical parts more quickly to protect against premature wear. High VI fluids
also retain viscosity better at high temperatures. This means they protect better in severe
service to insure component durability while maintaining operating efficiency.
There are two elements to consider in evaluating overall hydraulic efficiency: volumetric
and mechanical efficiencies. Volumetric efficiency is related to the flow losses within the
hydraulic pump or other components due to internal leakage. Mechanical efficiency is
related to the amount of energy required generating flow. There is an optimum viscosity
range where hydraulic systems operate at maximum effectiveness.
13