Module 5: Semiconductors and Devices

Module 5

Semiconductors and Devices

Syllabus:

Fermi level in Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductor, Expression for concentration of

electrons in conduction band & holes concentration in valance band (only mention the
expression), Relation between Fermi energy & Energy gap in intrinsic semiconductors
(derivation), Law of mass action, Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor
(derivation), Hall effect, Expression for Hall coefficient (derivation) and its application.
Numerical Problems.

Introduction:

Semiconductors are materials whose resistivity in the range between those of conductors and
insulators. The conductivity relates to the size of the energy gap.
The energy gap is the energy difference between the bottom of the conduction band and the top
of the valence band. It is denoted as Eg. For a semiconductor, the energy gap is much lesser than
that for insulators.
There are two types of semiconductors:
Intrinsic semiconductor: A pure semiconductor which is not doped with impurity atoms is
called an intrinsic semiconductor whose conductivity is due to only the thermal excitation of
electrons.
Extrinsic semiconductor: An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor containing very small
amount of impurity or doping agent, by virtue of which it possesses higher electrical
conductivity compared to pure semiconductors.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors
 n-type semiconductor: In this type, the doping agent is a pentavalent impurity, such as
phosphorous, and the majority charge carriers are electrons.
 p-type semiconductor: In this type, the doping agent is a trivalent impurity, such as
boron, and the majority charge carriers are holes.
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Expression for Concentration of Charge Carriers: In semiconductor, electrons and holes

are the charge carriers.
Concentration of electrons in the conduction band is given by

Where m*e is the effective mass of electron, kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute
Temperature, EF is the Fermi energy, EC is the energy of the conduction band edge, and h is the
Planck’s constant.

Where is called as the effective density of states of electrons at the

conduction band edge.

Hole Concentration in valence band is given by

Where m*h is the effective mass of electron, kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute
Temperature, EF is the Fermi energy, E v is the energy of the valence band edge, and h is the
Planck’s constant.

Where is called as the effective density of states of holes at the valence

band edge.
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Fermi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor:

(Q: Explain the Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor and derive the relation between
Fermi energy and energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor (VTU-Dec 2023/Jan 2024)

Fermi level is the energy level at which the probability of finding an electron at T>0. At
temperature T = 0 K, all the energy levels in the valence band are filled whereas in conduction
band empty. But at ordinary temperatures, such as room temperature, due to thermal excitations,
Module 5: Semiconductors and Devices

some of the electrons at the top of the valence band are excited and occupy energy levels at the
bottom part of the conduction band leading to the formation of equal number of conduction
electrons and holes. But these electrons de-excite to the energy levels which they had left vacant
in the valence band. The electrons in this set of energy levels continue to undergo excitation and
de-excitation. At equilibrium conduction electrons are distributed between the energy levels in
the bottom part of the conduction band and the top portion of the valence band. Hence the
probability of occupation of energy levels in conduction and valence band is equal. Therefore,
the Fermi level lies in the middle of conduction band and valance band.

For intrinsic semiconductor, electrons concentration is equal to holes concentrations

Taking natural logarithm on both sides, we get,

Module 5: Semiconductors and Devices

At T=0K

i.e., the Fermi level lies in the middle of the conduction band and valence band.
The above can also be written as a relation between Fermi energy and energy gap. Since
Ec = Ev + Eg, we have

The convention is to keep the top of the valence band as the reference level, i.e., Ev = 0.

This is the relation between Fermi energy and energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
Thus Fermi level lies in the middle of the energy gap for intrinsic semiconductor.
Module 5: Semiconductors and Devices

Fermi Level in an Extrinsic Semiconductor:

(Q: Explain the Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor)

An extrinsic semiconductor contain very small amount of impurity or doping agent. The
addition of such impurity atoms introduces new energy levels in the energy band diagram
depending on the type of impurity. As a result, the concentration of charge carriers and the
position of the Fermi level vary. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors as follows.

 n-type semiconductor: In this type, due to the addition of pentavalent impurities, a new
energy level called the donor energy level Ed arises just below the conduction band edge.
At 0 K, the donor level is completely filled with electrons. As the temperature increases
slightly, some of the donor atoms contribute electrons to the conduction band. Also, some
of the valence band electrons may jump to the conduction band leaving behind holes in
the valence band. But the number of holes produced in this process is quite small.
Therefore, the Fermi level must lie somewhere near the middle of the donor level and the
bottom of the conduction band as shown in figure. However, as the doping concentration
increased numbers in the donor levels increasing as a result Fermi level shifts closer to
the conduction band.
The Fermi level in n- type semiconductor is given by

Where Nd is the number of donors per unit volume occupying the donor level.
In this n-type of semiconductor majority charge carriers are electrons.
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 p-type semiconductor: In p-type semiconductors, due to the addition of trivalent

impurities, a new energy level called the acceptor energy level E a arises just above the
valence band edge. At 0 K, the acceptor level is completely empty of electrons. As the
temperature increases slightly, part of these acceptors acquiring electrons from the
valence band and creating holes in the valence band which causes p-type conduction.
Also, some of the valence band electrons may jump to the conduction band. But the
number of conduction electrons produced in this process is, however, quite small.
Therefore, the Fermi level must lie somewhere near the middle of the acceptor level and
the top of the valence band as shown in figure. This can be seen by the following
expression

Where Na is the number of acceptors per unit volume occupying the acceptor level.

Law of mass action

Consider the electron concentration in conduction band n e and the hole concentration in
the valence band nh. Now consider the product of these two expressions

where Eg = Ec – Ev

The product ne nh does not depend on EF , but remains constant at a given temperature.
This is called as the law of mass action and it holds for both intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors. In the case of an intrinsic semiconductor, n e = nh = ni , where ni is called
the intrinsic carrier concentration.
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This means that the product of electron and hole concentrations (of either intrinsic or
extrinsic semiconductor) is equal to the square of the intrinsic carrier concentration.

Therefore the intrinsic carrier concentration from equations 1 and 2 is

Expression for Electrical Conductivity of Semiconductor:

(Derive an expression for electrical conductivity in extrinsic and intrinsic semiconductor)

Consider a semiconductor with cross sectional area A in which current I is flowing.

Let ne be the number of electrons per unit volume in the semiconductor with v e and e being the
drift velocity and the magnitude of charge of each electron respectively. The total current in
semiconducting material is the sum of the current due to flow of electrons and current due to
holes . i.e

Let us consider current flow through the semiconductor is given by

Current density is given by

the mobility of electrons and E be the electric field.

Current density can be written as

Module 5: Semiconductors and Devices

Comparing this with general form of Ohm’s law

This is the expression for electrical conductivity due to electrons in the semiconductor.

But we know that even holes contribute to the conductivity of semiconductors. So in a similar
manner, we get the electrical conductivity due to holes as

Where, nh be the holes concentration and be the mobility due to holes

Total conductivity due to the flow of electrons and holes is

For intrinsic semiconductor,

Conductivity for intrinsic semiconductor can be written as

HALL EFFECT:

(Q: What is Hall voltage and Hall field? Obtain an expression for Hall voltage interms
of Hall coefficient)

Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (Hall voltage) across a

semiconductor which is perpendicular to both the direction of electric current and to
the applied magnetic field. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

Consider an n-type semiconductor as shown in figure. Let its length in the y direction be
d and in the z direction be w.
Module 5: Semiconductors and Devices

The current passes through a cross sectional area of A = wd

A constant magnetic field B is set up in the positive z direction as shown.

A charge q moving in an external magnetic field experiences Lorentz force F L which is

given by

Let q= -e , (direction of conventional current is opposite to that of electronic

current; so the velocity of electrons is in the negative x direction) and magnetic
field in Z axis. Then force experience the electrons is

Since
Force experienced by the electrons has a magnitude evB in the negative y direction.
Therefore electrons experience a downward force and get accumulated at the bottom of
the semiconductor. Due to this, there is a net accumulation of positive charge at the top of
the semiconductor. Because there is a separation of positive (top) and negative (bottom)
charges inside the semiconductor, an electric field is setup in the negative y direction.
This field is called the Hall field E H. The potential difference associated with this field is
called Hall voltage VH.
We know that a charge q in an electric field E experiences a force FE given by the
relation

So in this case, substituting q = −e and in the above expression, we get

Module 5: Semiconductors and Devices

This indicates that electric force experienced by the electrons has magnitude eE H in the
positive y direction.
Since these two forces are opposite to each other and reach equilibrium such that

Thus the above equilibrium conditions reduces to (using equations 1 and 2)

This is the velocity of the electrons in the equilibrium condition

The current density corresponding to this condition can be written as

We know that, the current density,

Since for n-type of semiconductor, is the concentration of electrons

Substituting v using equation 3 in the above relation

Where

is called Hall coefficient and it has unit of m3/C

And be the charge density = ne e

Module 5: Semiconductors and Devices

Equation 5 reduces to

Now by definition of the of electric field across the potential difference of v volts and its
separation d is

In this case , and L=d then equation 6 can be written as

Substituting this EH in the expression for RH (equation 5)

Let area normal to the direction of current is A=w d

Now, Current density is given by definition -

Applications:

Hall Effect finds important applications in studying the electrical properties of semiconductor
such as determination of carries concentrations, carries mobility and determines the type of
semiconductor, which is P type or N type.
Module 5: Semiconductors and Devices

1. The resistivity of intrinsic germanium at 27 0C is equal to 0.47Ω-m. Assuming electron and hole
mobility as 0.38 and 0.18 m2V-1S-1 respectively, calculate the intrinsic carries density.
Solution: Given resistivity i= 0.47Ω-m, Conductivity ,
Electron mobility μe = 0.38 m V S and hole mobility μh = 0.18 m2V-1S-1
2 -1 -1

Intrinsic carries density, ni = ?

2. The conductivity and the Hall coefficient of an n type silicon specimen are 112/Ωm and 1.25
X10-3 m3/C respectively. Calculate the charge carrier concentration and electron mobility.
Solution: Conductivity and Hall coefficient R H = 1.25 X10-3 m3/C

charge carrier concentration n=? and electron mobility μe =?

charge carrier concentration n,

To find electron mobility μe ,