2425 Term 2 Science Revision
Understanding Atom, Subatomic Particles and the Periodic Table
Prepared By Kenzie Kosasih
Atomic Theories
Proposed atomic theories and atomic models by scientists:
1) Democritus (430 BCE) - Solid Sphere
The Greek scientist Democritus first proposed the idea of an atom. He believed matter is
composed of atoms, which are small spheres. Democritus states that atoms are indivisible,
indestructible, solid, hard, and incompressible. His idea of atoms as small spheres comes from
his “experiment,” where he crushed sea shells and observed tiny spheres, therefore
concluding that atoms are small spheres. However, people still say it is only a bold guess due
to the lack of credibility of the experiment.
2) John Dalton (1803 CE) - Solid Sphere Model
Dalton drew upon the Ancient Greek idea of atoms (the word 'atom' comes
from the Greek atomos' meaning indivisible). His theory stated that atoms are
indivisible, those of a given element are identical, and compounds are
combinations of different types of atoms. The good thing that Dalton found
about atoms is that atoms of particular elements differ from other elements.
His theory is not correct though later proven (atoms aren’t invisible; they are
composed of subatomic particles.
3) J.J. Thomson (1904 CE) - Plum Pudding Model
Thomson discovered electrons (which he called 'corpuscles') in atoms in 1897,
for which he won a Nobel Prize. He subsequently produced the 'plum
puddingʼ model of the atom. It shows the atom as composed of electrons
scattered throughout a spherical cloud of positive charge. He recognised
electrons as components of atoms. His model didn’t have a nucleus and didn’t
explain later experimental observations.
4) Ernest Rutherford (1911 CE) - Nuclear Model
Rutherford fired positively charged alpha particles at a thin sheet of gold
foil. Most passed through with little deflection, but some deflected at
large angles. This was only possible if the atom was mostly space, with the
positive charge concentrated in the centre: the nucleus. Rutherford
realised that positive charge was localised in the nucleus of an atom. But
he didn’t explain why electrons remain in orbit around the nucleus.
5) Niels Bohr (1913 CE) - Planetary Model
Bohr modified Rutherford's model of the atom by stating that
electrons moved around the nucleus in orbits of fixed sizes and
energies. Electron energy in this model was quantised; electrons
could not occupy values of energy between the fixed energy levels.
Bohr proposed stable electron orbits; and explained the emission
spectra of some elements. But didn’t explain that moving electrons
should emit energy and collapse into the nucleus; the model did not work well for heavier
atoms.
6) Erwin Schrödinger (1926 CE) - Quantum Model
Schrödinger stated that electrons do not move in set paths around the
nucleus but in waves. It is impossible to know the exact location of the
electrons; instead, we have 'clouds of probability' called orbitals, in
which we are more likely to find an electron. Schrodinger shows
electrons don't move around the nucleus in orbits, but in clouds where their position is
uncertain and his model is still widely accepted as the most accurate model of the atom.
Subatomic Particles Discovery:
1. Nucleus (1831CE) - Robert Brown
2. Electron (1897CE) - J.J Thomson
3. Proton (1917CE) - Ernest Rutherford
4. Neutron (1932CE) - James Chadwick
John Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
All matter was composed of atoms, invisible and indestructible building blocks. While all atoms of an
element are identical, different elements have atoms of different sizes and masses.
Important Terminology
● Molecule - A group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as
a chemical bond.
● Compound - In chemistry, a compound is a substance made up of two or more different
chemical elements combined in a fixed ratio. When the elements come together, they react
with each other and form chemical bonds that are difficult to break.
Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
1. All matter is composed of tiny, definite particles called atoms.
2. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible
3. All atoms of a specific element are identical in mass, size and other properties. However,
atoms of different elements exhibit different properties and vary in mass and size.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in fixed whole-number ratios when forming compounds.
5. Atoms can be rearranged, combined, or separated in chemical reactions.
3 Laws of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
● Law of Conservation of Mass - Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
● Law of Definite Proportions - Chemical compounds always contain the same elements in the
exact same proportions by mass.
● Law of Multiple Proportions - When 2 elements form more than one compound the ratios of
the masses of the second element that combine with a fixed mass of the first element are
always in small whole numbers.
Example:
CO (Carbon Monoxide)
Carbon = 12g
Oxygen = 16g
1g of carbon = 1.33g of oxygen
1g of oxygen = 2.67 / 1.33 g = 2g
Atomic Structure:
● All substances are made from tiny particles called atoms.
An atom has a small central nucleus made up of smaller
subatomic particles called protons and neutrons. The
nucleus is surrounded by an even smaller subatomic
particle called electrons.
● Protons and electrons have an electrical charge. Protons
are positive, electrons are negative and neutrons are
neutral in charge so they don’t have a charge.
Subatomic Relative Mass Relative Charge Charge / C Mass/kg
Particle
Proton 1 +1 + 1.6 * 10^-19 1.67 * 10^-27
Neutron 1 neutral/none 0 1.67 * 10^-27
Electron 0.0005 -1 - 1.6 * 10^-19 9.11 * 10^-31
Gold Foil Experiment (Ernest Rutherford)
It was an experiment done by Ernest
Rutherford in 1908. Rutherford's gold foil
experiment showed that atoms are mostly
empty space, with the positive charge
concentrated in a nucleus. He realised this
because most of the alpha particles (+2 charge)
passed straight through the piece of gold foil,
with just a few deflected at huge angles.
Rutherford used gold for
his scattering experiment because gold is the most malleable metal and he
wanted the thinnest layer possible. Here beside is Rutherford's atomic model
based on the conclusions that he drew from this experiment.
Cathode Ray Experiment (JJ Thomson)
The cathode ray tube experiment was done by J.J
Thomson in 1897. The experiment was done in a
vacuum-enclosed tube consisting of an electron emitter
which consists of the heater and the focusing coil. The
function of the cathode ray tube is to convert an
electrical signal into a visual display. Cathode rays or
streams of electron particles are quite easy to produce,
electrons orbit every atom and move from atom to
atom as an electric current.
In a cathode ray tube, electrons are accelerated from one end of the tube to the other using
an electric field. When the electrons hit the far end of the tube they give up all the energy they carry
due to their speed and this is changed to other forms such as heat. A small amount of energy is
transformed into X-rays.
Atomic Number vs. Mass Number & Atomic Mass
The atomic number of a atom is the number of
protons the atom contains. Atoms of different elements
have different numbers of protons such as oxygen atoms
have 8 protons and all sodium atoms have 11 protons.
Atomic mass is the weighted average mass of an
element’s atoms, taking into account the relative
abundance of its isotopes. It is expressed in atomic mass
units (amu), is in decimal form, such as 12.011 for carbon
in nature. While the mass number is the total number of
protons and neutrons in a nucleus of an atom. Always
whole numbers, often denoted as A, such as for
Carbon-12 (12C), the mass number is 12 (6 protons + 6
neutrons)
The number of electrons in a neutral atom is equal
to the number of protons in its nucleus. So, this makes the atoms have no overall electrical charge
unless they are ions.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of an element with different
amounts of neutrons but the same amount of protons. This
means that they have the same atomic number (amount of
protons) but a different atomic mass (weighted average
mass of an atom).
Average Atomic Mass
To calculate the average atomic mass of an element,
you need to consider the masses of its isotopes and their relative abundances. The average atomic
mass is a weighted average, calculated as follows:
Average Atomic Mass= ∑ (Isotopic Mass × Relative Abundance)
For Example Chlorine has two isotopes:
● Chlorine -35:
○ Isotopic mass: 34.969 amu
○ Relative abundance: 0.7578
● Chlorine -37:
○ Isotopic mass: 36.966 amu
○ Relative abundance: 0.2422
The formula:
Average Atomic Mass = ∑ (Isotopic Mass × Relative Abundance)
Expanding it:
Average Atomic Mass =(34.969 × 0.7578)+(36.966 × 0.2422)
Calculate:
Average Atomic Mass = 26.498+8.953=35.451 amu
The Periodic Table
Periodic Table Introduction
The periodic table is organised based on the increasing atomic number (increasing amount of
protons). The period in a periodic table is the row of chemical elements, all elements in this row have
the same number of electron shells. The group is the collum of the chemical elements, ex noble
gases, halogens, alkali metals, and alkaline-earth metals.
Summary Of Group Properties
Group Physical Valance Ion Density Melting Boiling Atomic Reactivity Uses in Real world
Appearance Electron Charge Point Point Radius
1 (Alkali Silver, 1 +1 Low Low Medium Increase Increase Batteries, salt,
Metals) Shiny, Soft High going going down soap, fertiliser
down
2 (Alkaline Metal, 2 +2 Low Medium Medium Increase Increase Fireworks,
Earth greyish Medium High going going down aerospace
Metals) white & down materials
silverish,
soft
17 Colourful 7 -1 Low Low Low Increase Decrease Swimming pool,
(Halogens) (pale to Medium Medium going going down toothpaste,
darker) down betadine
solid-liquid-
gas
18 (Noble Colourless 8 (expt In Very low Low Low Increase Inert Balloons, colour
gases) gas helium = general going (Unreactive) signage, photo
2) none down flash.
Group 1 & 2 Trends
● Down the group the reactivity, softness, and density increase.
● While up the group the melting point and building point increase.
● So Francium and radium have the lowest melting points, lithium and
beryllium have the highest boiling points, and the softest it also francium
and radium. Francium and radium is the densest, and lithium and
beryllium are the least reactive.
Group 17 & 18 Trends
● Down the group the melting point and boiling point increase.
● While up the group the reactivity increases only for Group 17 Halogens.
● While up the group the reactivity stays inert for group 18
● So the elements in groups 17 and 18 with the lowest melting point is
fluorine and helium, while those with the highest boiling point are
astatine and radon.
Atomic Radius
● The one-half of the distance between the nuclei of two atoms of the
same elements when the atoms are joined.
● Down a group, the number of shells (energy levels) increases, so there is
a greater distance between the nucleus and the outermost shell. This
results in a larger atomic radius.
● Moving from left to right across a period, the nucleus of the atom gains protons, increasing the
positive charge of the nucleus and increasing the attractive force of the nucleus upon the
electrons. This causes the atomic radius to become smaller.
Electron Configuration
Shells are the path that electrons follow outside the nucleus. Shells can be
considered as energy levels. The further away the shell from the nucleus, the higher
its energy.
Aufbau Principle
In the Bohr model, electrons fill up the lowest available
energy level before beginning to fill the next shell. Bohr called
this the Aufbau principle. Aufbau principle explains how the
electron shells are built up, or filled with electrons.
For the 1st 20 elements, the maximum number of
electrons that can be accommodated by certain shells are the
1st shell 2 electrons, 2nd shell 8 electrons, 3rd shell 8
electrons, and 4th shell 2 electrons.
Lewis Rule: Octet & Duplet Rule
● Picturing from Noble Gasses, an atom having 8 electrons in its outermost shell is the least
reactive or most stable.
● When atoms have fewer than eight electrons in its outermost shell, they tend to react by
gaining or losing or sharing electrons to have 8 electrons in their valence shell for a stable
compound.
● Electrons in its outermost shell are called valence electrons. Hence its outermost shell is also
called valence shell.
● The tendency of an atom to acquire an outermost shell of eight electrons is called the octet
rule.
● Exceptional for Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium, Beryllium, Boron. Due to having few electrons,
these elements are only able to acquire an outermost shell of two electrons. This is called the
duplet rule.
Ion & Electron configuration
● When an atom loses or gains electrons to achieve
stability (follow duplet or octet rule) it becomes
electrically charged particles called ions.
● Positive ions called cations, negative ions are called
anions.
● Electron Configuration Examples:
Potassium (K) - [Link]
Neon (Ne) - 2.8
Magnesium (Mg) - 2.8.2