Production of x-rays
Dr. Rebuar Fadhil
Radiology- 311
First semester
Week No.2
Production of x-rays
▪ Most of the electrons travelling from
filament to the target interacts with
target electrons & release their energy
(99%) as heat.
▪ The other 1% of electrons kinetic energy
converts to x-ray photons by the
formation of bremsstrahlung &
characteristic radiation.
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
▪ Is the primary source of radiation from an x-
ray tube.
▪ Bremsstrahlung radiation formed by
sudden stopping or slowing of high-speed
electrons by tungsten nuclei in the target.
Characteristic radiation
Characteristic radiation contributes
only a small fraction of the photons in
an x-ray beam.
Characteristic radiation occurs when
an incident electron ejects an inner
electron from the target atom
Factors controlling the x-ray beam
1- Exposure time :
▪ Changing the time controls the duration of
the exposure & thus the number of photons
generated.
▪ When the exposure time is doubled, the
number of photons generated at all energies
is doubled, but the rate of energies is
unchanged.
Exposure time
2-Tube current (mA):
As the mA setting increased, more power is
applied to the filament which heats up &
releases more electrons that collide the
target to produce radiation.
The quantity of radiation is directly
proportional to the tube current (mA) & the
time is the tube operated.
Tube current(mA)
▪ 3-Tube voltage (kVp):
▪ Increasing the kVp increases the potential
difference between the cathode & anode , thus
increasing the energy of each electron when it
strikes the target.
▪ This result in an increased efficiency of
conversion of electron energy into x-ray
photons & thus an increase in (1) the number
of photons generated, (2) their mean energy,
& (3) their maximal energy.
Tube voltage kVp
4- Filtration:
▪ An x-ray beam consists of a spectrum of
photons of different energies,
▪ Only photons of sufficient energy to
penetrate through anatomical structure &
reach the image receptor (film or digital) are
useful for diagnostic radiography.
▪ Photons that are of lower energy that they
are not able to reach the receptor contribute
to patient exposure (risk) but do not offer
any benefit.
▪ To reduce patient dose, such low-energy
photons should be removed from the beam,
this can be accomplished, in part by placing an
aluminum filter in the path of the beam.
▪ Governmental regulations require the total
filtration require in the path of a dental x-ray
beam to be equal to the equivalent of 1.5 -2.5
mm of aluminum (atomic number 13) .
▪ Total filtration is the sum of(1) inherent &
(2)added filtration .
▪ 1-Inherent filtration consists of the materials
that x-ray photons encounter as they travel
from the focal spot to form the usable beam
outside the tube enclosure.
▪ These materials include the glass wall of
the x-ray tube, the insulating oil, & the
barrier material that prevents the oil from
escaping through the x-ray port.
▪ The inherent filtration of most x-ray
machines ranges from the equivalent of 0.5
to 2 mm aluminum.
▪ 2- Added filtration is any externally filtration
supplied in the form of aluminum disks placed
over the port in the head of the x-ray
machine.
Aluminum filter
5- c0llimation :
▪ A collimator is metallic barrier with
an aperture in the middle used to
reduce the size of x-ray beam &
thereby the volume of irradiated
tissue.
▪ Dental x-ray beams are usually
collimated to a circle 2 ¾ inches (7
cm) in diameter.
▪ Collimating the x-ray beam
reduces the exposure area
& thus
the number of scattered
photons reaching the film & as
a result improving image
quality.
Scattered photons
Round & rectangular collimators are most
frequently used in dentistry.
A round collimator is a thick plate of metal
(usually lead) with a circular opening
centered over a port in the x-ray head
through which the x-ray beam emerges,
Typically round collimator are built into
open-ended aiming cylinder.
Rectangular collimator limits the size
of the beam to just larger than the x-
ray film , thereby reducing patient
exposure.
Round & rectangular collimators
▪ 6- Intensity :
▪ The intensity of an x-ray beam (the number of
photons per cross-sectional area per unit of
exposure time) depends on the distance of
the measuring device from the focal spot.
▪ The intensity of the x-ray beam is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
from the source.
▪ The reason of this decrease is that an x-ray
beam spreads out as it moves from the
source.
Intensity of x-ray beam
Interaction of x-rays with matter
▪ In dental imaging the x-ray beam enters the
face of a patient & interacts with hard & soft
tissues (about 90% ), & then strikes a digital
sensor or film( about 10% ).
▪ As the beam goes through the patient, it is
attenuated, that is, reduced in intensity.
▪ This attenuation results from interactions of
individual photons in the beam with absorber
atoms, the photons are either absorbed or
scattered.
▪ In absorbing interactions, photons
ionize absorbing atoms , convert
their energy into kinetic energy of
the ejected electron , & cease to
exist.
▪ In scattering interactions , photons
also interact with absorbing atoms
but then move off in other direction.
Dosimetry
▪ Determining the quantity of radiation
exposure or dose is termed dosimetry.
▪ The term dose is used to describe the
amount of energy absorbed per unit of mass
at a site of interest.
▪ Exposure is a measure of radiation on the
basis of its ability to produce ionization in
air under standard conditions of
temperature and pressure (STP)
▪ UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
In recent years a move has
occurred to use a modernized
version of the metric system
called :
The SI system ( Système
International d ’ Unités).
(International System of Units)
Exposure
▪ Exposure is a measure of radiation
quantity, the capacity of radiation to ionize
air.
▪ SI measures the kinetic energy transferred
from photons to electrons and is expressed
in units of dose (gray [ Gy ] ), where 1 Gy
equals 1 joule/kg.
▪ It has replaced the roentgen (R), the
traditional unit of radiation exposure
measured in air.
Absorbed Dose
▪ Absorbed dose is a measure of the energy absorbed
by any type of ionizing radiation per unit of mass of
any type of matter.
▪ The SI unit is the Gy, where 1 Gy equals 1joule/kg.
▪ The traditional unit of absorbed dose is the rad
(radiation absorbed dose) .
▪ Where 1 rad is equivalent to 100 ergs per gram (g) of
absorber.
▪ One Gy equals 100 rads.
Equivalent Dose
▪ The equivalent dose is used to compare the biologic
effects of different types of radiation on a tissue or
organ.
▪ The unit of equivalent dose is the sievert (Sv).
▪ For diagnostic x-ray examinations 1 Sv equals 1 Gy.
▪ The traditional unit of equivalent dose is the rem
(roentgen equivalent man).
▪ One sievert equals 100 rem.
Effective Dose
▪ The effective dose is used to estimate the risk in
humans.
▪ This allows the risk from exposure to one region
of the body to be compared with the risk from
exposure to another region.
▪ In addition to considering the relative biologic
effectiveness of different types of radiation ,
▪ It also considers the radiosensitivity of different
tissues for cancer formation or heritable effect.
▪ The unit of effective dose is the sievert (Sv) .
Radioactivity
▪ The measurement of radioactivity describes
the decay rate of a sample of radioactive
material.
References
• Whaites, E. and Drage, N(2020). Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology(6th ed.). Elsevier Health
Sciences.
• White, S.C. and Pharoah, M.J(2019). Oral Radiology Principles and Interpretation(8th ed.). Elsevier Health
Sciences.