Department of Mathematics

MA4351 – Discrete mathematics

UNIT - IV ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES - CLASS NOTES
Definition: Algebraic Systems
A system consisting of a set and one or more n-ary operations on the set will be called an
algebraic system or simply algebra.
Example: (Z, +) is an algebraic system.
Properties of Binary Operations:
Let the binary operation be  :G  G  G
Then we have the following properties:
(1) Closure Property:
a  b  x  G, for all a, b  G
(2)Commutative property:
a  b  b  a, for all a, b  G
(3)Associative Property:

 a  b  c  a  b  a  , for all a, b, c  G
(4)Identity Property:
a  e  e  a, for all a  G
(5)Inverse Property:
a b  b  a  e
(6)Distributive Properties:

a   b.c    a  b . a  c  ,

 b.c   a  b  a . c  a  for all a, b, c  G

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 (7)Cancellation Property:
b  a  c  a  b  c  Right cancellation 

a  b  a  c  b  c  Left cancellation 
Example: (Z, +) is an algebraic system. Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, and
lattices.
Definition: Semi Group and Monoid
Let S be non empty set, * be a binary operation on S. The algebraic system (S, *) is called a semi
group, if the operation is associative.
In other words (S,*) is a semi group if for any x, y, z  S, x* (y * z) = (x* y )* z.
A semigroup (S, ∗) with an identity element [Link] ‘∗’ is called monoid.
Examples :
 (Set of integers,*) is Monoid as 1 is an integer which is also identity element .
 (Set of natural numbers, +) is not Monoid as there doesn’t exist any identity
element. But this is Semigroup.
 (Set of whole numbers, +) is Monoid with 0 as identity element.
Definition: Group
An algebraic system (G,*) is called a group if it satisfies the following properties:
(i) * is associative.
(ii) Identity element exists.
(iii) Inverse element exists.
Note: 1. A group is always a monoid, semigroup, and algebraic structure.
2. (Z,+) and Matrix multiplication are examples of groups.
Definition: Abelian Group
In a group ( G, *), if a * b = b * a, for all a, b in G then the group is called an abelian group.
Examples: (Z,+) is a example of Abelian Group but Matrix multiplication is not abelian group as
it is not commutative.
1 Prove that identity element in a group is unique.
Ans:
Let (G,*) be a group.

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 Let ‘e1’ and ‘e2’ be the identity elements in G
Suppose e1 is the identity, then
e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e2
Suppose e2 is the identity, then
e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e1
Therefore e1= e2.
Hence identity element is unique.
2 Show that every element of a group G is self inverse then G is abelian
Ans:
Let (G,*) be a group.
For a , b  G we have a * b  G

Given a  a 1 and b  b 1
( a * b )  ( a * b ) 1
 b 1 * a 1
 b*a
a*b  b*a
G ia abelian
3 Prove that in any group, identity element is the only idempotent element.
Ans:
Let a be an idempotent element of G, then a * a  a.........(1)
1
Now a  G  a  G
pre multiply a 1 on both sides of (1)

a 1 *(a * a )  a 1 * a      (2)
a 1

* a * a  a 1 * a  e
e*a  e
a  e
4 Find the idempotent elements of G  {1,1, i,i } under the binary operation
multiplication.
Ans:
Idempotent condition a*a=a

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 -1 . -1 = 1
i . i  i 2  1
 i.  i  i 2  1
But 1.1  1
The idempotent element is 1
5 If (G, ∗) is an abelian group, show that (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 ∗ 𝒃𝟐
Ans : Assume that G is abelian. 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
Now , 𝑎2 ∗ 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑎 ∗ [𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑏)] = 𝑎 ∗ [(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑏]
= 𝑎 ∗ [(𝑏 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑏] = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)2
6 Let Z be the group of integers with the binary operation * defined by a * b  a  b  2 for

all a , b  Z . Find the identity element of the group Z ,*

Ans:
a = a*e = a+e-2
a = a+e-2
e-2 = 0
e=2
7 If S = N x N the set of ordered pairs of positive integers with the operation ∗ defiined by
𝒂
(𝒂, 𝒃) ∗ (𝒄, 𝒅) = (𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝒄, 𝒃𝒅) and if 𝒇: (𝑺,∗) → (𝑸, +) is defined by 𝒇(𝒂, 𝒃) = show that 𝒇 is
𝒃

a semigroup homomorphism.
Ans : consider {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑)} ∗ (𝑒, 𝑓) = {(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑) ∗ (𝑒, 𝑓)}
= {(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓}
= {𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓}
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ {(𝑐, 𝑑) ∗ (𝑒, 𝑓)} = (𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑𝑒, 𝑑𝑓)
= {𝑎𝑑𝑓, 𝑏(𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑𝑒), 𝑏𝑑𝑓} = {𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓}
∗ satisfies associative property,
Hence (S, ∗) is a semigroup.
Now, 𝑓{(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑)} = 𝑓(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑)
𝑎𝑑+𝑏𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
= =𝑏+ = 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) + 𝑓(𝑐, 𝑑)
𝑏𝑑 𝑑

∴ 𝑓(𝑆,∗) → (𝑄, +) is a semigroup homomorphism.

8 Show that a semigroup with more than one idempotent a group. Give an example of a

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 semigroup which is not group.
Ans : Let (S, ∗) be a group
Assume (S, ∗) has 2 idempotent element namely ′𝑎′ and ′𝑏′
∴ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 & 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 -------(1)
Claim : (S, ∗) is not a group
Suppose not, (ie) (S, ∗) is a group. Then (S, ∗) satisfies inverse
∴ 𝑎 has iinverse 𝑎 −1 and 𝑏 has iinverse of 𝑏 −1
(ie) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒 & 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 −1 = 𝑒 --------(2)
𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 −1
⇒ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑎−1 = ( 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑏 −1
⇒ 𝑎 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) = 𝑏 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 −1 )
⇒ 𝑎∗𝑒=𝑏∗𝑒 ⇒ 𝑎=𝑏 which is contradiction
∴ (S, ∗) is not a group
(Z, ×) is an example of a semigroup but not a group.
9 Show that the intersection of any two congruence relations on asset is also congruence
relation.
Ans : Let 𝐸1 & 𝐸2 be 2 congruence relation on (A, ∗). Then 𝐸1 & 𝐸2 satisfies the substitution.
∴ for any 2 element 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴
(𝑎1 𝐸1 𝑎3 ) ∧ (𝑎2 𝐸1 𝑎4 ) ⇒ (𝑎1 ∗ 𝑎2 )𝐸1 (𝑎3 ∗ 𝑎4 ) ------(4) where 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 ∈ 𝐴
for any 2 element 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ∈ 𝐴
(𝑏1 𝐸2 𝑏3 ) ∧ (𝑏2 𝐸2 𝑏4 ) ⇒ (𝑏1 ∗ 𝑏2 )𝐸2 (𝑏3 ∗ 𝑏4 ) ------(4) where 𝑏3 , 𝑏4 ∈ 𝐴
Let 𝐸 = 𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2
Now, (𝑎1 𝐸 𝑎3 ) ∧ (𝑎2 𝐸 𝑎4 ) ⇒ (𝑎1 (𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 )𝑎3 ) ∧ (𝑎2 (𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 )𝑎4 )
⇒ [(𝑎1 𝐸1 𝑎3 ) ∧ (𝑎2 𝐸1 𝑎4 )] and [(𝑎1 𝐸2 𝑎3 ) ∧ (𝑎2 𝐸2 𝑎4 )]
⇒ [(𝑎1 ∗ 𝑎2 )𝐸1 (𝑎3 ∗ 𝑎4 )] and [(𝑎1 ∗ 𝑎2 )𝐸2 (𝑎3 ∗ 𝑎4 )]
⇒ (𝑎1 ∗ 𝑎2 )𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 (𝑎3 ∗ 𝑎4 )
∴ Intersection of congruence relation is again congruence
10 Let S = Q x Q be the set of all ordered pairs of rational numbers and given by (𝒂, 𝒃) ∗
(𝒙, 𝒚) = (𝒂𝒙, 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒃) (i) check (S, ∗) is a semigroup. Is it commutative? (ii) Also find the
identity element of S.
Ans :

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 (i) 1. Closure Property
Obviously ∗ satisfies closure property.
2. Associative property
Consider , [(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑥, 𝑦)] ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑) = [(𝑎𝑥, 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏) ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑)]
= [𝑎𝑥𝑐, 𝑎𝑥𝑑 + (𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏)] = [𝑎𝑐𝑥, 𝑎𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏]
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ [(𝑥, 𝑦) ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑)] = (𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ [𝑥𝑐, 𝑥𝑑 + 𝑦] = [𝑎𝑥𝑐, 𝑎(𝑥𝑑 + 𝑦) + 𝑏]
= [𝑎𝑥𝑐, 𝑎𝑥𝑑 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏] = [𝑎𝑐𝑥, 𝑎𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏]
∴ [(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑥, 𝑦)] ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ [(𝑥, 𝑦) ∗ (𝑐, 𝑑)]
∴ ∗ is associative ∴ (S, ∗) is a semigroup.
3. Commutative property
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑎𝑥, 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏)
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑥𝑎, 𝑥𝑏 + 𝑦) = (𝑎𝑥, 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑦)
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∴ (S, ∗) is not commutative.
(ii) Identity property
Let (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ) be the identity element of (S, ∗)
For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ S (𝑎, 𝑏) ∗ (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ) = (𝑎, 𝑏)
(𝑎𝑒1 , 𝑎𝑒2 + 𝑏) = (𝑎, 𝑏)
⇒ 𝑎𝑒1 = 𝑎 and 𝑎𝑒2 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑒1 = 1 and 𝑒2 = 0
∴ The identity element = (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ) = (1,0)
11 If ∗ is a binary operation on the set R by real numbers defined by 𝒙 ∗ 𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝒚. (1)
Find 〈𝑹,∗〉 is a semigroup. (2) Find the identity element if it exists. (3) Which element has
inverse and what are they ?
Ans :
(1) To find 〈𝑅,∗〉 is a semigroup
(i) Closure : since 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 , 2𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝑅
∴ ⇒ + ⇒ + 2⇒⇒ ∈ ⇒ ⇒ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 ∴ ∗ satifies closure property.
(ii) Associative :
Now (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦)𝑧
= 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑥𝑦𝑧 ---------------(1)
𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧) = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧)
= 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑥𝑦𝑧 ---------------(2)

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 ∴ 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 ∴ (𝑅,∗) is a semigroup.
(2) To find identity element :
If identity element exist, let it be ‘𝑒’. Now for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑒 + 2𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑒(1 + 2𝑎) = 𝑎 − 𝑎 = 0
𝑒=0∈𝑅 ∴ identity element exist.
(3) Let 𝑎−1 be the inverse of an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑎−1 + 2𝑎𝑎 −1 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑎−1 (1 + 2𝑎) = 0 − 𝑎
−𝑎
⇒ 𝑎−1 = 1+2𝑎
1 −𝑎
∴ if ≠ − 2 , 𝑎−1 exist and 𝑎−1 = 1+2𝑎.

12 Let (S, ∗) be a semigroup. Then prove that there exists a homomorphism ∶ 𝑺 → 𝑺𝑺 , where
(𝑺𝑺 , 𝟎) is a semigroup of function from S to S under the operation of (left) compositions.
Ans : Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆 define 𝑓𝑎 ∶ 𝑆 → 𝑆 by 𝑓𝑎 (𝑏) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
Now 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 (𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑓𝑎 (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑓𝑎 (𝑓𝑏 (𝑐)) = (𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 )(𝑐)
∴ 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 = 𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏
Now define a map 𝑔 ∶ 𝑆 → 𝑆 𝑆 by 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑓𝑎
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 then 𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 = 𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑔(𝑎) ∘ 𝑔(𝑏)
∴ ‘𝑔’ is a homomorphism from S into 𝑆 𝑆 .
13 Show that the group  G ,   is abelian if and only if  a  b   a 2  b2 , a, b  G
2

Proof:
Assume that G is abelian
a  b  b  a, a,b  G. ........1
Now, a 2  b2   a  a    b  b 
 a   a   b  b   * Associative 
 a   a  b   b   Associative 
 a   b  a   b  By 1
  a  b    a  b  Associative 

a 2  b2   a  b 
2

Conversely, assume that,

a 2  b2   a  b 
2

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  a  b    a  b    a  a    b  b   Associative 
a  b   a  b    a   a   b  b    Left Cancellation 
 b  a   b   a  b   b  Right Cancellation 
b  a    a  b 
Therefore G is abelian.
14  1 0   1 0 1 0    1 0  
Prove that G    , , ,   forms an abelian group under matrix
  0 1   0 1   0  1  0  1 
multiplication.
Answer:

1 0   1 0 1 0   1 0 
Let I    , A   , B  and C   
0 1   0 1 0 1  0 1
The matrix multiplication table is,

 I A B C

I I A B C

A A I C B

B B C I A

C C B A I

Claim 1: Closure property

Since all the elements inside the table are the elements of G.
Hence G is closed under multiplication.
Claim 2: Associative property
We know that matrix multiplication is always associative
Claim 3: Identity property
From the above table we observe that the matrix I G is the Identity matrix.

Claim 4: Inverse property

From the above table we observe that all the matrices are inverse to each other.

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 Hence Inverse element exists.
Claim 5: Commutative property
From the table we have
A  B  C  B  A, A  C  B  C  A, B  C  A  C  B

Therefore commutative property exists.

Hence G forms an abelian group under matrix multiplication.
15 If M 2 is the set of 2  2 non singular matrices over R

 a b  
i.e., M 2     where a , b , c , d  R and ad  bc  0  Prove that ( M 2 ,  ) is a group, where
c d  
 is usual multiplication.
Ans:
(i)Closure property:
a b  a b2 
Let A   1 1  and B   2
 c1 d1   c2 d2 

a a  b c a1b2  b1d2 
AB   1 2 1 2
c1a2  d1c2 c1b2  d1d 2 

Also |AB|=|A|.|B|
Since A and B are non singular AB is also non singular
A,B  M 2  AB  M 2

Therefore Matrix multiplication is closed.

(ii)Associative property:
We know that Matrix multiplication is associative.

(iii)Identity property:
1 0 1 0
If I    and AI  IA  A. Hence, I  
1 0 1 0
is the identity element of M 2 with respect to multiplication.

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 (iv)Inverse property
a b 
A  then
c d 
 d b 
If | A | | A |  1  d b 
A 
1
  M2
 c a  | A |  c a 
| A | | A | 

Therefore Inverse of A is A1  M 2

Hence  M 2  is a group.

Since AB  BA in general,  M 2  is not abelian

Definition: Subgroups

16 Find all the subgroups of (Z9, +9)

Ans :
Z9 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8]}

H = {[0],[3],[6]} is a subgroup of Z9
+9 [0] [3] [6]

[0] [0] [3] [6]

[3] [3] [6] [0]

[6] [6] [0] [3]

Since, H is a finite subset of G. H is closed under +9, (H, +9) is a subgroup of (Z9, +9)

17 Prove that the intersection of two subgroups of a group G is again a subgroup of G.

10
 Ans : Let G be a group and H1 and H2 are subgroups of G. Then H1 ∩ H2 is also a subgroup of G.
Since H1 ∩ H2 are subgroup of G
∴ H1 ∩ H2 ≠ ∅.
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ H1 ∩ H2
⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ H1 and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ H2 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ H1 and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ H2
⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2
For 𝑎, 𝑏 −1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2
∴ H1 ∩ H2 is a subgroup
18 Show that the union of two subgroups of a group G is a subgroup of G iff one is contained
in the other.
Ans : Assume that H and K are two subgroups of G and H ⊆ K or K ⊆ H.
∴ H ∪ K = K or H ∪ K = H
Hence H ∪ K is a subgroup.
Conversely, Suppose H ∪ K is a subgroup of G.
To prove : H ⊆ K or K ⊆ H.
Suppose that H is not contained in K and K is not contained in H.
∃ elements 𝑎, 𝑏 such that 𝑎 ∈ H and 𝑎 ∉ K --------- ( 1)
𝑏 ∈ K and 𝑏 ∉ H --------- ( 2)
Clearly 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ H ∪ K. Since H ∪ K is a subgroup of G, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ H ∪ K
Hence 𝑎𝑏 ∈ H or 𝑎𝑏 ∈ K
Case (i) Let 𝑎𝑏 ∈ H ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ H, 𝑎−1 ∈ H
Hence 𝑎−1 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑏 ∈ H, which is a ⇒⇐ to (2)
Case (ii) Let 𝑎𝑏 ∈ K ⇒ b ∈ K, 𝑏 −1 ∈ K
Hence 𝑏 −1 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎 ∈ K, which is a ⇒⇐ to (1)
∴ our assumption is wrong ∴ H ⊆ K or K ⊆ H.
19 Prove that the necessary and sufficient conditions for anon empty subset H of a group
(G, ∗) to be a subgroup is 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯
Ans :
Necessary condition :
Let us assume that H is a subgroup of G. Since H itself is a group,
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

11
 Since 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 ∴ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
Sufficient condition :
Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
Now to prove H is a subgroup of G.
(i) Identity : Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒𝑒∈𝐻
Hence the identity element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻
(ii) Inverse : Let 𝑎, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
Every element ’ 𝑎’ of H has its inverse 𝑎−1 is in H.
(iii) Closure : Let 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 −1 )−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
∴ H is closed . ∴ H is a subgroup of G.
Define Index of H.
Ans :The number of distinct left (or) right cosets of H in G is called the index of H in G. It is
𝑶(𝑮)
denoted by [ G : H ] = IG(H) = 𝑶(𝑯)

20 Show that any two right (left) cosets of H in G are either disjoint or identical.
Proof:
Let H * a and H * b be two right cosets of a subgroup H of G.

Let a, b G , We have to prove that either  H * a    H * b   

then H * a  H * b

Suppose  H * a    H * b    , then there exists an element

x   H * a   H *b
 x  H * a and x  H * b
Now, x  H * a
 H * x  H * a ......................(1)
and x  H *b
 H * x  H * b ........................(2)
From (1) & (2), we have
H * x  H * a  H *b
 H * a  H *b
either  H * a    H * b     or  H * a  H *b

12
21 State and prove Lagrange’s theorem.
Ans : Let G be a finite group of order ‘n’ and H be any subgroup of G. Then the order of H
divides the order of G.
Let (G, ∗) be a group whose order is 𝑛 ⇒ O(G) = 𝑛
Let (H, ∗) be a subgroup whose order is 𝑚 ⇒ O(H) = 𝑚
Let ℎ1 , ℎ2 , ℎ3 , …, ℎ𝑚 be the 𝑚 different elements of H.
The right coset H∗ 𝑎 of H in G is defined by
H ∗ 𝑎 = {ℎ1 ∗ 𝑎 , ℎ2 ∗ 𝑎 , ℎ3 ∗ 𝑎 , …, ℎ𝑚 ∗ 𝑎} 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
Since there is a 1 – 1 correspondence between the elements of H and H ∗ 𝑎 the elements of H ∗
𝑎 are distinct.
Hence each right cosets of H in G has 𝑚 distincst elements.
wkt any right cosets of H in G are either disjoint or identical.
The number distinct right cosets of H in G is finite(K)
The union of these K distinct cosets of H in G is equal to G.
Let these K distinct right cosets be
H ∗ 𝑎1 , H ∗ 𝑎2 , H ∗ 𝑎3 ,….., H ∗ 𝑎𝑘
Then G = ( H ∗ 𝑎1) ∪ (H ∗ 𝑎2 ) ∪ (H ∗ 𝑎3) ∪…..∪(H ∗ 𝑎𝑘 )
O(G) = O[(H ∗ 𝑎1 ) ∪ (H ∗ 𝑎2 ) ∪ (H ∗ 𝑎3) ∪…..∪(H ∗ 𝑎𝑘 ) ]
= O(H ∗ 𝑎1 ) + O(H ∗ 𝑎2 ) + O(H ∗ 𝑎3 ) + O(H ∗ 𝑎𝑘 )
𝑛 = 𝑚 + 𝑚 + 𝑚 + ⋯ … . +𝑚 = 𝑘𝑚
𝑛 𝑂(𝐺)
= 𝑘 (ie) 𝑂(𝐻) = 𝑘
𝑚

Hence O(H) divides O(G).

22 Find the left cosets of [0],[3] in the group  Z6 ,  6 

Ans: Let Z6 0,1,2,3,4,5

H 0,3

0+ H  0,3  H

1+ H  1, 4

2+ H  2,5

13
 3+ H  0,3  H

4  H  4,1  1,4  1  H
5  H  5,2  2,5  2  H
0+H, 1+H and 2+H are three distinct left coset of H.
23 Prove that the intersection of two normal subgroups of a group (G, ∗) is a normal
subgroup of a group (G, ∗).
Proof :
Let G be a group and H and K are normal subgroups of G.
⇒ H and K are subgroups of G. ⇒ H ∩ K is a subgroup of G.
To prove H ∩ K is also a normal subgroup of G.
Let 𝑥 ∈ G and ℎ ∈ H ∩ K
𝑥 ∈ G and ℎ ∈ H and ℎ ∈ K
𝑥 ∈ G and ℎ ∈ H and 𝑥 ∈ G and ℎ ∈ K
𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ∈ H and 𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ∈ K
⇒ 𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ∈ H ∩ K
∴ H ∩ K is a normal subgroup.
24 Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal
Proof:
Let G be an abelian group and H be a subgroup of G

 
Now x  H  x 1  x  H  x 1 , x  G, h  H

G is abelian,  x 1  H  H  x 1 
 

 x  x 1  H 

 x  x 1  H
 e H  H

 For x  G and h  H ,
we have x  H  x 1  H

H is a normal subgroup of G.

14
 Group Homomorphism

Kernal of a Homomorphism

Isomorphism

25 Prove that group homomorphism preserves identity.

Ans:
Let f : (G,*)  (G , )

Identity property is a*e = e * a = a,  aG

Consider a * e = a
f( a * e ) = f(a)
f(a)  f(e) = f(e)
f(e) is identity element of G
(i.e) f(e) = e
26 Let (M, ∗) be a monoid. Prove that there exists a subset T ⊆ 𝑴𝑴 such that (M, ∗) is
isomorphic to the monoid (T, ∘) here 𝑴𝑴 denotes the set of all mappings from M to M and
“O” denotes the composition of mappings.
Ans : Define a mapping 𝑓: (𝑀,∗) → (T,∘) where T ⊆ 𝑀𝑀 by 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓𝑎 where 𝑓𝑎 ∈ 𝑀𝑀 and

15
 𝑓𝑎 (𝑏) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 for all 𝑏 ∈ M.
Here the identity element of (T,∘) is 𝑓(𝑒) where ‘𝑒’ is the identity element of M.
Now, 𝑓𝑎𝑏 (𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
= 𝑓𝑎 (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑓𝑎 (𝑓𝑏 (𝑐))
= 𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 (𝑐)
∴ 𝑓 is a homomorphism. Obviously 𝑓 is both 1-1 and onto.
Hence, 𝑓: (𝑀,∗) → (T ⊆ 𝑀𝑀 , ∘) is isomorphism . Hence M is isomorphic to T.
27 Let (G, ∗) and (H, ∆) be two subgroups and g : (G, ∗) → (H, ∆) be group homomorphism.
Then prove that the kernel of g is normal subgroup of (G, ∗).
Ans :
wkt , ker(𝑓) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺/𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 ′ }
since 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ is always true, atleast 𝑒 ∈ ker(𝑓)
ker(𝑓)is not empty in G.
Let two elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ker(𝑓)
∴ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ and 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒 ′
Now, 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 = 𝑒 ′ ∗ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 ′
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ ker(𝑓).
∴ ker(𝑓) is a subgroup of G.
Now, To prove ker(𝑓) is normal
To prove 𝑥𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
For let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and ℎ ∈ 𝐾
∴ 𝑓(𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(ℎ) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑒 ′ ∗ 𝑓(𝑥 −1 )
= 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐻
∴ H = ker(𝑓) is normal subgroup of G.
28 Let f : G  G ' be a group homomorphism and H is a subgroup of G ' then f 1  H  is a

subgroup of G.
Proof:


Let f 1  H   x  f 1 ( y )  G, f ( x)  y  H 
Clearly f 1 ( H ) will be a non-emptysubset of G  H is a subgroup of G '

16
 Now let us consider
x1  f 1  y1   f 1  H  and
x2  f 1  y2   f 1  H 
for y1 , y2  H with f  x1   y1 and f  x2   y2
Let x1 , x2  f 1 ( H )
 f ( x1 ), f  x2   H  H is a subgroup 
 f ( x1 ) * f  x 12   H
 f ( x1 * x 12 )  H  f is homomorphism 
 x1 * x 12  f 1  H 
x1 , x2  f 1  H 
 x1 * x2  f 1  H 
 f 1  H  is a subgroup of G '

29 FUNDAMENTAL THEORM OF HOMOMORPHISM (or) Every homomorphic image of a

group G is isomorphic to some quotient group of G.(or)
Let 𝒇 ∶ 𝑮 → 𝑮′ be a homomorphism of groups with kernel K. Then prove that K is normal
subgroup of G and G / K is isomorphic to the image of 𝒇.

To prove: 𝒌𝒆𝒓(𝒇) is a subgroup of G.

we know that , ker(𝑓) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺/𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 ′ }
since 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ is always true, atleast 𝑒 ∈ ker(𝑓)
ker(𝑓)is not empty in G.
Let two elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ker(𝑓)
∴ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ and 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒 ′
Now, 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 = 𝑒 ′ ∗ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 ′
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ ker(𝑓). ∴ ker(𝑓) is a subgroup of G.
Let 𝐺 & 𝐺 ′ be any two groups with identity element 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 ′ respectively. If 𝑓 ∶ 𝐺 →
𝐺 ′ be a homomorphism, then ker(𝑓) is a normal subgroup.
Now, To prove 𝒌𝒆𝒓(𝒇) is normal
To prove 𝑥𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺

17
 For let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and ℎ ∈ 𝐾
∴ 𝑓(𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(ℎ) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑒 ′ ∗ 𝑓(𝑥 −1 )
= 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝑥 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐾
∴ K = ker(𝑓) is normal subgroup of G.
PROOF
Let 𝑓 be the homomorphism 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ .
Let 𝐺 ′ be the homomorphic image of a group G.
Let K be the kernel of this homomorphism.
Clearly K is a normal subgroup of G.
To prove : G / K ≅ 𝐺 ′
Define 𝜙 ∶ 𝐺/𝐾 → 𝐺 ′ by 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
(i) 𝝓 is well defined:
𝐾 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ ker(𝑓) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑒 ′ ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1 ∗ 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒 ′ ∗ 𝑓(𝑏) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
⇒ 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑏) ∴ 𝜙 is well defined.
(ii) 𝝓 is 1-1 :
To prove 𝜙(𝐾 + 𝑎) = 𝜙(𝐾 + 𝑏) ⇒ 𝑘 + 𝑎 = 𝑘 + 𝑏
Wkt, 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑏) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑏) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑒)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏−1 ) = 𝑒 ′ ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑒 ′
⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ ker(𝑓) ⇒ 𝐾 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝑏 ∴ 𝜙 is 1-1.
(iii) 𝝓 is onto :
Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 ′
Since 𝑓 is onto, there exists 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑦

18
 Hence 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑦 ∴ 𝜙 is onto.
(iv) 𝝓 is homomorphism :
Now, 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝐾 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)
= 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝜙(𝐾 ∗ 𝑏)
∴ 𝜙 is homomorphism
Since 𝜙 is 1-1, onto & homomorphism 𝜙 is an isomorphism between G / K and
𝐺 ′.
Hence G / K ≅ 𝐺 ′ .
30 If ( Z ,  ) and ( E ,  ) where Z is the set of all integers and E is the set of all even integers, show
that the two semi groups ( Z ,  ) and ( E ,  ) are isomorphic.
Let f :  Z ,     E,   be defined by
f  x   2x
Claim : f is 1  1
Assume f  x   f  y   2 x  2 y  x  y
 f is 1  1.
Claim : f is onto.
To prove  y  E,  x  Z such that f  x   y
y
Now , f  x   y  2x  y  x 
2
y
 y  E, the corresponding pre image is Z
2
 f is onto.
Since f :  Z ,     E,   is bijective
Claim : f is homorphism
f  x  y   2  x  y   2x  2 y
 f  x  f  y
f  x  y  f  x  f  y
 f is homomorphism.
Since f :  Z ,     E,   is b ijective and homomorphism.
f is homomorphism.
  Z ,   and  E,   are isomorphic to each other.
 Z ,   E,  

19
31 If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ is a group homomorphism from (G,∗) to (𝐺 ′ , ∆) then prove that for any ∈ 𝐺 ,
𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = [𝑓(𝑎)]−1.
Ans : 𝑓: (G,∗) → (𝐺 ′ , ∆) is a homomorphism.
∴ ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we’ve 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∆ 𝑓(𝑏)
Now , 𝑓(𝑎) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = [𝑓(𝑎)]−1 .
32 State and prove Cayley’s theorem.
Statement: Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to permutation group of degree n.
We shall prove this theorem in 3 steps
Step- 1: we shall first find a set G’ of permutation.
Step -2:We prove G’ is a group
Step-3: Exhibit an Isomorphism  : G  G'
Step-1:
Let G be finite group of order n
Let aϵG
Define f a : G  G by f a ( x)  ax
Sin ce f a ( x)  f a ( y )  ax  ay  x  y
f a is 1  1

Sin ce, if y  G , then f a (a 1 y )  aa 1 y  y

f a is onto.
Thus, f a is a bijection.

Since G has ' n ' elements, f a is just permutation on ' n ' symbols
Let G '   f a / a  G
Step-2:
G’ is a group
Let f a , f b  G '
fa f b ( x)  f a ( f b ( x))  f a (bx)  abx  f ab ( x)

Hence f a f b  f ab .Therefore G ' is closed

f e  G 'is the identity element.

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 The inverse of f a in G ' is f a 1
G ' is a group
Step-3:
We prove G and G’ are isomorphic.
Define  : G  G ' by  (a)  f a
 (a)   (b)  f a  f b  f a ( x)  f b ( x)
 ax  bx  a  b
Hence  is 1  1.
Sin ce f a is onto  is onto.
Also   ab   f ab  f a fb    a    b 
 : G  G ' is an Isomorphism.
 G and G’ are isomorphic.
Hence the proof
33 Discuss Ring and Fields with suitable examples.
Ans :
An algebraic system (R, +, ∙) is called a ring if the binary operations + and ∙ satisfies the
following conditions
(1) (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅
(2) There exists an element 0 ∈ 𝑅 called zero element such that 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 for all 𝑎 ∈
𝑅
(3) For all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0 , −𝑎 is the negative of 𝑎
(4) 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
(5) (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑐) 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅
(6) The operation ∙ is distributive over + , (ie) for any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅
𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 (𝑏 + 𝑐) ∙ 𝑎 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ∙ 𝑎
Examples are (Z, +, ∙) ; (Q, +, ∙) ; (R, +, ∙) ; (C,+, ∙) etc.
A commutative ring with identity (R, +, ∙) is called field if every non-zero element has a
multiplicative iniverse.
(R, +, ∙) is a field if

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 (1) (R, +) is abelian group
(2) (R-{0}, ∙) is also abelian group.
34 Prove that the set Z4  0,1,2,3 is a commutative ring with respect to the binary

operation  4 and x 4 .
Ans:
Composition table for additive modulo 4.

+4 [0] [1] [2] [3]

[0] 0 1 2 3

[1] 1 2 3 0

[2] 2 3 0 1

[3] 3 0 1 2

Composition table for multiplicative modulo 4.

x4 [0] [1] [2] [3]

[0] 0 0 0 0

[1] 0 1 2 3

[2] 0 2 0 2

[3] 0 3 2 1

From tables, we get

(i) all the entries in both tables belongs to Z 4

Therefore Z 4 is closed under the both operations addition and multiplication.

(ii) From the both tables, entries in the first, second, third and fourth row is equal to entries in
the first, second, third and fourth columns respectively.
Hence the operations are commutative.
(iii) Modular addition and Modular multiplications are always associative.

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 (iv) 0 is the additive identity and 1 is the multiplicative identity.
(v) Additive inverse of 0, 1, 2, 3 are respectively 0, 3, 2, 1. Multiplicative inverses of the non-
zero elements 1, 2 and 3 are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
(vi) If a, b, c  Z4 then

a  b  c    a  b    a  c 

 a  b   c   a  c   b  c 
The operation multiplication is distributive over addition

Hence  Z4 , 4 , 4  is a commutative ring with unity.

35 Prove that every field is an integral domain, but the converse need not be true.

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36 Show that  Z , , is an integral domain where Z is the set of all integers.
Proof:
It is obvious that ‘+’ satisfies closure and associative property.

For  Z ,   the identity element is 0 an 0 Z.

For any elelment a  Z , its inverse a  Z
For any a, b  Z we have

abba a, b
 ( Z , ) is an abelian group.
Now consider (Z ,)
It is obvious that  satisfied closure and associative property.

For (Z ,) the identity element is 1 and 1 Z

 ( Z , ) is a monoid.
Moreover (Z ,) is commutative and  is distributive over 

Also  Z , ,  has no zero divisors

 (Z , ,) is an integral domain.

37 Let  R,  ,. be a ring. For a , b  R Show that

(i) a .(  b)  (a .b) (ii) (  a ) .b  (a .b )

(iii) (  a ) (  b)  a .b (iv) a .(b  c )  a .b  a .c

(v) (a  b).c  a .c  b .c

Solution:
(1) Given a, b R. Then
a.b  a.(b)  a.b  (b)   a.0  0
and a.(b)  a.b  a. (b)  b   a.0  0
Thus we have  (a.b)  a.(b)

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(2) Let a, b R. Then
a.b   a  .b   a  (a) .b  0.b  0
and  a  .b  a.b   (a)  a .b  0.b  0
Thus we have  (a.b)  (a).b
(3) Replacing b by  b
(a).(b)  (a.(b))  a.((b))  a.b
(a)(b)  a.b

 4 a. b  c   a.(b  (c))

 a.b  a.(c)  a.b  a.c
 a.(b  c)  a.b  a.c

(5)  a  b  .c  (a  (b)).c
 a.c  (b).c  a.c  b.c
  a  b  .c  a.c  b.c

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