MODULE 4

SYLLABUS:
Electronic conversion systems application to renewable energy
generation systems:
Basic schemes and functional advantages, Power control and
management systems for grid integration, island detection systems,
synchronizing with the grid; Issues in integration of converter based
sources;
Network voltage management; Power quality management and
Frequency management; Influence of PV/WECS on system transient
response

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RENEWABLE ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM

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 Wind power conversion
• The function of a wind turbine is to convert the linear motion of the wind into rotational energy that
can be used to drive a generator, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
• Wind turbines capture the power from the wind by means of aerodynamically designed blades and
convert it into rotating mechanical power.
• At present, the most popular wind turbine is the Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWTs) where the
number of blades is typically three.

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• Electric generators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
• Electromagnetic Induction is a current produced because of voltage production (electromotive force)
due to a changing magnetic field. This either happens when a conductor is placed in a moving
magnetic field (when using an AC power source) or when a conductor is constantly moving in a
stationary magnetic field.
• How conversion happens in generator
• The generation of electrical power requires relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor.
In a generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. The electricity produced by most
generators is in the form of alternating current.
• A power converter is an electrical circuit that changes the electric energy from one form into the
desired form optimized for the specific load.

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 WIND POWER
• The aerodynamic power, P, of a wind turbine is given by:
• where ρ is the air density
• R is the turbine radius,
• v is the wind speed and Cp is the turbine power coefficient which represents the
power conversion efficiency of a wind turbine.
• Cp is a function of the tip-speed ratio (λ), as well as the blade pitch angle (β) in a
pitch controlled wind turbine. The Betz limit, Cpmax (theoretical) =16/27, is the
maximum theoretically possible rotor power coefficient.
• λ is defined as the ratio of the tip speed of the turbine blades to wind speed, and
given by:

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 Basic schemes and functional advantages
Wind energy
• Wind energy is an alternative to fossil fuels,
• it is plentiful
• Renewable
• widely distributed
• Clean
• low cost
• produces no emissions during operation
• uses a tiny land area
• The effects on the environment are generally less problematic
than those from other conventional power sources.
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 SOLAR POWER

• An energy source that is both renewable and inexhaustible

• Solar Power Reduces Carbon Emissions
• Solar Panels Reduce Dependence on the National Grid
• Using solar energy helps drastically cut down the electricity you use from the national grid.
• Solar Energy is Sustainable
• Solar Panels are Long-Lasting
• It can be used on under-utilised land
• Solar Power is Good for the Economy

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 GRID CONNECTION
• An electrical power grid is an interconnected network that delivers the generated power to the
consumers. It is, sometimes, also called as an electrical power system. A power grid consists of
generating stations (power plants), transmission system and distribution system.
• Transmission of electrical power over longer distances is a lot much economical than the relative
transmission of any other fuel. Also, a hydroelectric plant must be located according to an
appropriate dam site or a wind power plant may be located off-shore to harvest additional energy
from the wind. Thus, a long distance transmission system is needed to transmit the generated
electricity to the populated areas. And a distribution system is needed to distribute the power to
every consumer at appropriate voltages.

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 POWER GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION
• POWER GENERATION:
• Electricity is generated in power plants which are often located far away from the populated
areas. There are various types of power generating stations such as thermal, nuclear, hydro,
solar, wind etc. A power plant may consist two or more 3-phase alternators which are
operated in parallel. Electricity is generated in power plants at voltages ranging from 11kV
up to 25 kV. Generation voltage can not be much higher due to technical limitations.
• TRANSMISSION: For the transmission of power over longer distances, the generated
voltages are stepped up to a much higher level. A step up transformer is used for this
purpose, which increases the voltage level with the corresponding decrease in the current.
Stepping up the voltage is necessary to increase the transmission efficiency by reducing I2R
losses in the transmission lines. Higher the transmission voltage means lesser the current
and, hence, lesser the I2R loss. Transmission voltages are generally 220kV or greater up to
765kV. Transmissions lines are often seen running over tall towers at the outskirts of a city.

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 POWER DISTRIBUTION
• Power from the transmission system is then stepped down to a
considerably lower voltage (say 33 to 66kV) using a step-down transformer
in a primary step-down substation. The power is then carried to
distribution substations or directly to very large industrial consumers. At
distribution substations, the power is further stepped down (say at 11kV).
Power distribution is carried out using overhead or underground
distribution lines which are usually interconnected in a ring or mesh
network types. Distribution transformers are used to lower the voltage
further to the utilization voltage (120 volts or 230 volts) and supply several
consumers using the secondary distribution lines.
• This is, however, a general overview of an electric power grid. But,
practically, a power grid is much more complex. The voltage levels for
transmission and distribution vary widely.
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Power control and management systems for grid
integration

•Grid integration of wind energy is simply a collection

of all activities related to connecting WPPs to the grid.
Activities are split into three categories based on when
the activities occur.
•The first stage, planning, includes activities that occur
before a WPP is integrated.
•The second stage, Physical connection encompasses
activities that occur during the physical connection of
the wind farm to the grid.
•The final stage is system operations, which are the
activities that occur after the WPP is connected to the
grid (Figure 2).

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 PLANNING
• There are two distinct types of planning activities related to grid integration:
network-wide and project-specific.
• Network-wide activities set the stage for all future WPPs; these include grid code
development, network-wide system integration studies with scenarios for different
levels of wind penetration, and system operations studies. Project-specific planning
activities include system impact studies done for a specific wind project. The
methodologies for both types of studies are the same, except for input data related
to wind power installations. In a network-wide study, the input is wind energy
targets by region; while for a project-specific study, the input is WPP of the project.

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 Physical Connection
• Physically, a WPP is connected to an existing high voltage transmission line in a
substation. In order to avoid the expense of building a substation, most WPPs
choose to connect to an existing substation. In the substation, the WPP line is
connected to the medium voltage busbar, which is connected to a transformer to
step up the voltage to the high voltage transmission line. The medium voltage line
from the WPP to the substation is built by the WPP. The detailed design of the
interconnection depends on the conditions on the ground.

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 SYSTEM OPERATION
• After the WPP is physically connected to the transmission line, the attention of grid
integration turns to system operations, which integrate the production of WPPs into
the grid operations. The goal of grid operations is to commit and dispatch all
generation units in the system with the objective of meeting demand in a reliable
and economical manner. Wind energy forecasting is an important enabler in order to
meet these objectives, given the variability and uncertainty of wind resources. Day-
ahead hourly wind energy forecasts are used in the unit commitment process and
intraday updates to forecasts are used in the economic dispatch process. The unit
commitment process and economic dispatch process are described in the next
section.

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 GRID ISLANDING
Islanding is a critical and unsafe condition, which may occur in a power system. This
condition is caused due to an excessive use of distributed generators in the electrical
[Link] is the intentional isolation of a part of power system during external
widespread grid disturbance. This isolated part of Grid is called Island. Such a disturbance
may lead to black out. Therefore, islanding scheme provides a mean to continue to supply
power to the essential services in a zone or area. Grid is an interconnected system of
Generators and Transmission Lines. All the connected Generators run in synchronism.
However, if a major disturbance occurs, the Transmission Lines may trip which in turn may
create a cascaded effect. This cascaded effect, may eventually lead to collapse of entire Grid
and hence black out. Islanding scheme in power system is designed in such a way that, in
case of major Grid disturbance as sensed by the protection element, a portion of system is
isolated by tripping the pre-defined tie lines / transmission lines. Thus, isolating the part of
system from the remaining Grid. Thus, the effect of Grid disturbance is eliminated to affect
this Island.

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 OBJECTIVES OF ISLANDING
• Isolate a part of power system from the Grid to make Island.
• Continue to supply power in Island.
• Avoid tripping of Generators in the Island.
• Quick restoration of remaining system.
• The main advantage of Islanding is that, power supply is not interrupted
in the island even during the Grid disturbance. This helps to supply start
up power to various Power Plants to restore the system.
• Restoration of island is quite easier when compared to restoration of
whole system from black out state. The island is synchronized to Grid for
integration

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 ISLANDING METHODS
• The islanding methods in the power system are classified into
• Active
• Passive
• Remote
• Hybrid(combination of passive
and active methods)

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 The island detection system, synchronizing with the grid
• Islanding is defined as a condition in which a portion of utility system
that contains both load and distributed generation remains energized
while it is electrically isolated from the rest of the utility system
• Islanding detection techniques can briefly be classified into three
categories ML based technique, local detection methods, where the
detection is based on the DG(Distributed Generation) side, and remote
detection methods, where the detection is based on the utility side

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 PASSIVE DETECTION METHORDS

• The passive methods depend on the measurement of electrical parameters

such as voltage, frequency, and phase angle at the point of common coupling
(PCC) during islanding condition.
• Voltage and current harmonics detection
• Over/under voltage and over/under voltage frequency
• Rate of change of frequency
• Rate of change of frequency over power
• Rate of change of power output
• Voltage unbalance

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 Active detection method
• Generally, a small fluctuation is added to the output current of the distributed power generation
system. Since the utility is relatively strong in comparison with the distributed power generation
system, the additional small fluctuation cannot significantly affect the local load voltage when the
utility is in the nominal condition. Conversely, the small fluctuation can cause a significant change
in frequency, amplitude or waveform of the local load voltage when the utility is interrupted.
Hence, the islanding operation can be detected and judged immediately by such a change.
Instantly, the distributed power generation system must be disconnected from the utility so as to
avoid the islanding operation.
[Link] frequency drift
[Link] jump
[Link] frequency drift with positive feedback
[Link] of active and reactive power
[Link] measurement [Link] of impedance at specific frequency

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 REMOTE ISLANDING
• The remote methods mainly depends on communication between utility grid and
any distribution generators.
• Based on the relation between utility receiver status and the whole circuit breakers
in the line leading to DG transmitters islanding can be detected.
• [Link] insertion
• [Link] measurement units
• [Link] line carrier communications(PLCC)

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 The island detection system, synchronizing with the grid
• Islanding is defined as a condition in which a portion of utility system that contains both load and
distributed generation remains energized while it is electrically isolated from the rest of the utility
system
• Islanding detection techniques can briefly be classified into three categories ML based technique, local
detection methods, where the detection is based on the DG(Distributed Generation) side, and remote
detection methods, where the detection is based on the utility side
• ML based technique: ML-based islanding detection techniques do not require any communication
medium such as that used in remote techniques, no threshold settings as applied in passive techniques,
and no power quality issues found in active techniques. The state-of-the-art techniques used for
islanding detection today have shifted to ML-based islanding detection, which has certain advantages
over remote and local techniques.
• Remote detection methods rely on external communication devices which link each DG to the utility
side. They are more reliable than the local techniques, but they are more expensive to implement. Local
detection methods can be divided into passive and active detection methods. The performance of each
type of detection scheme can be evaluated according to their non detection zone (NDZ). The NDZ
represents the interval in which islanding detection scheme fails to detect islanding condition once
islanding occurred

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 Issues in the integration of converter based sources
• Availability of Power
• One of the biggest concerns in the field of renewable energy is power generation depending on
natural resources that are uncontrollable by humans. For example, solar powered electricity is
generated only when sunshine is available and turns off at night; wind energy also depends on the
availability of wind, so if the wind speed is very low, the turbine will not turn, and this result in zero
power flow to the grid. On the other hand, too much wind can damage the generator and therefore a
delicate balance needs to be maintained in order to keep a consistent generation of energy. The
uncertainty in energy production in renewable energy technologies is making integration more
complex.

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 ISSUES IN THE INTEGRATION OF CONVERTER BASED SOURCES

• Power Quality Issues

• Consistently high power quality is needed to ensure stability and high efficiency of
the network. The quality of the power supply allows the system to work well with
high reliability and lower costs. On the other hand, poor power quality can have
major adverse effects on the power grid as well as industrial processes. It can lead to
high costs and equipment failure. Power quality problems include frequency
disorder, voltage/current harmonics, low power factor, voltage variation and
transmission lines transits.

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 ISSUES IN THE INTEGRATION OF CONVERTER BASED SOURCES

• Resource Location
• Most renewable energy plants that share their energy with the grid require large areas of space. In
most cases, renewable energy sources are dictated by location which can be off-putting to users.
Firstly, some renewable energy sources are simply not available in different regions. Secondly, the
distance between the renewable energy source and the grid is a major aspect in term of cost and
efficiency. In addition to this, renewable energy sources depend on weather, climate and
geographical location, therefore meaning that one type of energy generation is not appropriate for
the region.

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 ISSUES IN THE INTEGRATION OF CONVERTER BASED SOURCES

• Information Barrier
• While this area is improving, there is a lack of information and awareness about the benefits and need of
renewable energy. Investment and capital allowances have been made available for the implementation of
renewable energies. There is a clear need for government agencies to assist and advice applicants and
potential recipients how to go about applying for renewable energy incentives.
• Cost Issue
• The high initial cost of installation is one of the major hurdles in the development of renewable energy.
Although the development of a coal plant requires about $6 per megawatt, it is known that wind and solar
power plants also required high investment. In addition to this, storage systems of the generated energy is
expensive and represents a real challenge in terms of megawatt production.

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 Network voltage management
• Network voltage management refers to the process of regulating and maintaining a stable
voltage level within an electrical power network.
• Voltage management is critical to ensuring the safe and efficient operation of electrical
equipment and preventing damage to the power grid.
• One of the primary goals of voltage management is to maintain the voltage level within a
specified range, typically between 110V and 240V.
• Voltage can fluctuate due to factors such as changes in demand, fluctuations in supply, and
other external factors such as weather conditions.
• Voltage management techniques aim to mitigate these fluctuations and maintain a stable
voltage level within the specified range.
• Overall, effective voltage management is critical to ensuring the safe and efficient operation of
electrical networks, reducing downtime and minimizing the risk of damage to equipment.

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 Network voltage management

• There are several techniques used in voltage management, including:

• Load management: This involves adjusting the amount of load on the network to regulate
voltage levels. Load management can be achieved by adjusting the voltage levels at the source,
using voltage regulators, or by adjusting the amount of power supplied to individual loads.
• Reactive power compensation: Reactive power compensation is defined as the management of
reactive power to improve the performance of alternating-current (ac) power systems. In
general, the problem of reactive power compensation is related to load and voltage support.
Reactive power compensation involves the use of reactive power devices such as capacitors
and inductors to manage voltage levels. These devices can be installed at various points in the
network to maintain a stable voltage level.
• Voltage regulation: Voltage regulation involves adjusting the voltage level at the source to
ensure that it remains within the specified range. This can be achieved by using voltage
regulators or transformers.

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 Network voltage management
• Power factor correction: Power factor correction involves improving the power factor of the
network to reduce losses and improve efficiency. This can be achieved by installing
capacitors or other reactive power devices. Power factor correction is the process of
compensating for the lagging current by creating a leading current by connecting capacitors
to the supply. A sufficient capacitance is connected so that the power factor is adjusted to be
as close to unity as possible.
• cos θ = Power factor of the circuit i.e. phase difference between current and voltage waves.
So if we put cos 90° = 0, then the overall power of the circuit will be zero (i.e. In a pure
Inductive circuit where voltage is leading by 90° from respectively). Ideal value of power
factor is unity (cos θ=1) which enhances the efficiency of the system.
• Power factor compensation can be active or passive. Passive power factor correction involves
the use of capacitors. Active power factor correction involves the adjustment of firing angle
of devices like thyristor.
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 POWER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
• Power quality management refers to the process of ensuring the quality of electrical power
supplied to consumers.
• It involves monitoring, controlling, and improving various aspects of power quality,
including voltage level, frequency, harmonics, transients, and interruptions.
• Poor power quality can cause problems such as equipment failure, production losses, and
safety hazards.
• Power quality management aims to minimize these problems and ensure the reliable and
efficient operation of electrical systems.
• Some common power quality management techniques include power factor correction,
voltage regulation, harmonic filtering, surge suppression, and uninterruptible power supply
(UPS) systems.
• Power quality monitoring and analysis tools are also used to identify and diagnose power
quality problems and implement appropriate solutions.

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 POWER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
• Power quality management techniques can include:
• Power factor correction: This involves adjusting the ratio of active power to apparent power,
which can improve the efficiency of electrical equipment and reduce energy costs.
• Voltage regulation: This involves regulating the voltage level to ensure that it remains within
a certain range, which can prevent equipment damage and ensure proper operation.
• Harmonic filtering: This involves removing harmonics from the electrical signal, which can
reduce the risk of equipment damage and improve power quality.
• Surge protection: This involves protecting equipment from voltage surges caused by
lightning, switching operations, or other sources, which can cause equipment damage and
downtime.
• Transient suppression: This involves suppressing transient voltage spikes, which can cause
equipment damage and interfere with equipment operation.

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 FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT
• The primary goal of frequency management is to ensure that there is efficient and effective use of the
available spectrum to meet the demands of various wireless applications while avoiding harmful
interference.
• This involves setting rules and regulations, assigning frequencies, coordinating usage among different
users, and monitoring compliance with established standards.
• Frequency management is essential in many fields, including telecommunications, broadcasting,
military operations, aviation, and satellite communications.
• It helps to ensure that different devices and systems can operate without interfering with each other,
thereby reducing the risk of communication breakdowns and other technical problems.

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 FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT
• Frequency management refers to the process of planning, allocating, regulating, and
monitoring the use of radio frequencies by various wireless communication systems.
• It involves the management of the electromagnetic spectrum, which is a limited and
valuable natural resource.
• Effective frequency management helps to ensure that different wireless communication
services can coexist without interfering with each other.
• This includes the allocation of frequencies to different types of services such as broadcasting,
mobile telephony, satellite communication, and wireless internet access.
• The management of radio frequencies is typically the responsibility of national regulatory
authorities, such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States, who
work closely with international bodies, such as the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU), to coordinate the use of the spectrum across borders.
• In summary, frequency management is an essential function for ensuring the efficient and
equitable use of the radio spectrum, which is vital for many aspects of modern
communication, including broadcasting, mobile communication, navigation, and scientific
research.

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 INFLUENCE OF PV ON SYSTEM TRANSIENT
RESPONSE
• Inertia: PV systems typically do not have any inherent rotational inertia, which
means they cannot provide the same level of stability and damping during grid
disturbances as traditional synchronous generators. This lack of inertia can
potentially lead to frequency deviations and voltage fluctuations during transient
events.
• Fault current contribution: PV systems can provide additional fault current to the
system during transient events, which can help to improve the fault clearing
performance of protection devices. However, this can also lead to overcurrent issues
and may require additional protection measures to be implemented

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• Voltage support: PV systems can provide voltage support during transient events by
injecting reactive power into the system. This can help to stabilize the grid and
improve voltage stability, particularly in weak areas of the system.
• Control strategies: Advanced control strategies for PV systems, such as virtual inertia
and fast frequency response, can help to mitigate some of the transient response
issues associated with PV integration. These strategies can provide additional
stability and damping during grid disturbances, similar to the way traditional
generators operate

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 INFLUENCE OF WECS ON SYSTEM TRANSIENT RESPONSEUENCE
OF PV / WECS ON SYSTEM TRANSIENT RESPONSE
• Voltage fluctuations: WECS can cause voltage fluctuations due to the intermittent
nature of wind. These fluctuations can lead to transient instability in the system,
especially if they are large in magnitude and frequency.
• Reactive power support: WECS can provide additional sources of reactive power to
the grid, which can improve the transient stability of the system. The power
electronics used in WECS can be used to control the flow of reactive power into the
grid, helping to maintain the voltage stability of the system

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 INFLUENCE OF PV / WECS ON SYSTEM TRANSIENT RESPONSE

• Frequency deviations: WECS can cause frequency deviations in the power grid due
to the variability of wind speed. These deviations can also lead to transient
instability in the system, especially if they are large in magnitude and frequency.
• Damping of oscillations: WECS can help to improve the damping of oscillations in the
power grid. This is because the power electronics used in WECS can be used to
actively control the output of the turbines, which can help to damp out any
oscillations that occur in the system

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