22esc144 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Dr Raghavendra Krishna

Module 2
Machine Tool Operations
Introduction
The machine tool is a machine that imparts the required shape to workpiece with the desired
accuracy by removing metal from the workpiece in the form of chips. In view of the extremely
vast range of shapes that are in practice imparted to various industrial components, there exists a
very large nomenclature of machine tools. Machine tools can be classified by different criteria as
given below:
1. By the degree of automation into
a. Machine tool with manual control
b. Semi-automatic machine tools and
c. Automatic machine tool.
2. By weight into
a. Light duty machine tools weighing up to 1 ton.
b. Medium duty machine tools weighing up to 10 tons and
c. Heavy duty machine tools weighing greater than 10 tons.
3. By the degree of specialization into
a. General purpose machine tools – which can perform various operations on workpiece of
different shapes and sizes.
b. Single purpose machine tools – which can perform single operation on work pieces of a
particular shape and different sizes and
c. Special machine tools – which can perform a single operation on workpiece of particular
shape and size.

Working and Auxiliary Motions in Machine tools

For obtaining the required shape on the workpiece, it is necessary that the cutting edge of the
cutting tool should move in a particular manner with respect to the workpiece. The relative
movement between the workpiece and cutting edge can be obtained either by the motion of the
workpiece, the cutting tool, or by a combination of the motions of the workpiece and cutting tool.
These motions which are essential to impart the required shape to the workpiece are known as
working motions. Working motions can further be classified as:
1. Drive motion or primary cutting motion
2. Feed motion
Working motions in machine tools are generally of two types: rotary & translatory. Working
motions of some important groups of machine tools are shown in figure:

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22esc144 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Dr Raghavendra Krishna

Machine Tools Operations:

Turning:
Turning is the removal of metal from the outer diameter of a rotating cylindrical work piece.
Turning is used to reduce the diameter of the work piece, usually to a specified dimension, and to
produce a smooth finish on the metal. Often the work piece will be turned so that adjacent sections
have different diameters.

Figure: Plain turning

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22esc144 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Dr Raghavendra Krishna

Facing: Facing is the process of removing metal from the end of a work piece to produce a flat
surface. It is some time called squaring. The facing tool used is of round edge, if the tool is pointed
then the work piece will not have good finishing. The work piece rotates about its axis and the
facing tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of lathe. Most often, the work piece is cylindrical,
but using a 4-jaw chuck you can face rectangular or odd-shaped work to form cubesand other
non-cylindrical shapes.

Figure: Facing
Knurling: It is the process of embossing a required shaped pattern on the surface of the work
piece. This diagram shows the knurling tool pressed against a piece of circular work piece. The
lathe is set so that the chuck revolves at a low speed. The knurling tool is then pressed against the
rotating work piece and pressure is slowly increased until the tool produces a pattern on the work
piece.

Figure: Knurling

Thread cutting: A thread is a uniform helical groove cut on or in a cylinder or cone. The tool is
ground to the shape of the thread and is moved longitudinally with uniform motion. The required

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22esc144 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Dr Raghavendra Krishna

pitch can be obtained by maintaining the appropriate gear ratio between the spindle and the lead
screw which enables the tool to move longitudinally at appropriate speed.

Figure: Thread cutting

Taper Turning by swivelling the compound rest: In this method of taper the half taper angle is
calculated. The compound rest has rotating base graduated in degrees, which can be rotated to any
angle (according to the taper angle). In this method the tool is advanced by rotating the compound
rest and hand wheel so that the tool moves according to set taper angle. This method produces
taper length larger than form tool method.
HEAD STOCK

CHUCK

Workpiece

Tool

Compound rest

Figure Taper Turning

Drilling: The drilling is one of the simplest methods of producing a hole. Before drilling a hole,
the center point of the hole has to be marked on the work piece. The center point of the hole is
marked by just drawing two cross lines or by using instruments. The mark is indented using a
center punch. The hole to be drilled may be a through hole or a blind hole. Through hole can be
drilled on any machine, but to drill a blind hole we need a sophisticated machine.

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22esc144 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Dr Raghavendra Krishna

Figure: Drilling
Boring: It is an operation employed to enlarge a hole by means of an adjustable cutting tool with
only one cutting edge. This is necessary where suitable sized drill is not available or where the
hole diameter is so large that it cannot be ordinarily drilled. It is used to finish a hole accurately
and to bring it to the required size. In precision machines the accuracy is as high as 0.00125mm;
the process is slower compared to reaming and requires several passes of tool.

Figure: Boring

Reaming: Reaming is a sizing and finishing operation performed on a previously drilled hole. The
tool used for reaming operation is known as reamer, which has multiple cutting edges. The spindle
speed is half compared to drilling operation. Reamers cannot produce hole, but followthe path
already defined by the drilling. The metal removed in this process is small, range isabout 0.35
mm.

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22ESC144 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Dr Raghavendra Krishna

Tapping: Is an operation of cutting internal threads by means of a cutting tool called a

tap. A slightly smaller diameter hole is drilled before tapping and a tap is fitted in the
tapping attachment which in turn is mounted in the drilling machine spindle.

Figure: Tapping
Counter Boring: Is an operation of enlarging the end of a hole cylindrically. The enlarged
hole forms a square shoulder with the original hole. The tool is guided by a pilot which
extends beyond the end of the cutting edges. The pilot fits into the small diameter hole
having running clearance and maintains the alignment of the tool. Counter boring is done
to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs, pins etc. Counter boring can give accuracy of
about 0.050mm.

Counter Sinking: Is an operation of making a cone-shaped enlargement of the end of a

hole to provide a recess for a flat head screw or countersunk rivet fitted into the hole. The
tool used for countersinking is called a countersink. Standard countersinks have 60 0, 820
or 900 included angleand the cutting edges of the tool are formed at the conical surface.

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Plane milling: The plain milling is the operation of production of a plain flat horizontal
surface parallel to the axis of rotation of a plain milling cutter. The operation is also
called slab milling.

Figure: Plane Milling

End milling: The end milling is the operation of production of a flat surface which may
be vertical, horizontal or at an angle in reference to the table surface. Use to produce slots,
grooves or key ways.

Figure: End Milling

Slot milling: The process of producing keyways grooves and slots of varying shapes and
sizes is known as slotting. The side milling cutter is mounted on to the arbor of a horizontal
milling machine when slotting had to be done on Horizontal milling machine. T–Slots and
dovetail slots are carried out on a veridical milling machine.

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22ESC144 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Dr Raghavendra Krishna

Advanced Manufacturing Technology (AMT) is a modern method of production

incorporating highly automated and sophisticated computerized design and operational
systems. AMT aims at manufacturing high quality products at low cost within the
shortest delivery time. This technology provide an integrated approach to production
processes through efficient information handling for overall improvements in product
quality and productivity.

Automation:

Automated manufacturing is a manufacturing method that relies on the use of

computerized control systems to run equipment in a facility where products are produced.
Human operators are not much needed on the assembly line or manufacturing floor
because the system is able to handle both the mechanical work and the scheduling of
manufacturing tasks. The development of fully automated manufacturing systems dates to
the later half of the 20th century, and this manufacturing technique is used in facilities of
varying scale all over the world.

Automation of production systems can be classified into three basic types:

1. Fixed automation (Hard Automation)

2. Programmable automation (Soft Automation)

3. Flexible automation.

1. Fixed automation (Hard automation): Fixed automation refers to the use of

special purpose equipment to automate a fixed sequence of processing or assembly
operations. Each of the operation in the sequence is usually simple, involving perhaps a
plain linear or rotational motion or an uncomplicated combination of two. It is relatively
difficult to accomodate changes in the product design. This is called hard automation.

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Advantages:

1. Low unit cost

2. Automated material handling

3. High production rate.

Disadvantages:

1. High initial Investment

2. Relatively inflexible in accommodating product changes.

2. Programmable automation: In programmable automation, the production

equipment is designed with the capability to change the sequence of operations to
accommodate different product configurations. The operation sequence is controlled by a
program, which is a set of instructions coded. So that they can be read and interpreted by
the system. New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new
products.

Advantages:

1. Flexible to deal with design variations.

2. Suitable for batch production.

Disadvantages:

1. High investment in general purpose equipment

2. Lower production rate than fixed automation.
Example: Numerical controlled machine tools, industrial robots and programmable logic
controller.

Flexible Automation: (Soft automation): Flexible automation is an extension of

programmable automation. A flexible automation system is capable of producing a variety
of parts with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one part style to the next. There
is no lost production time while reprogramming the system and altering the physical set
up.

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Advantages:

1. Continuous production of variable mixtures of product.

2. Flexible to deal with product design variation.

Disadvantages:

1. Medium production rate

2. High investment.
3. High ‘unit cost relative to fixed automation.

Numerical control (NC):

Numerical Control refers to the method of controlling the manufacturing operation by

means of directly inserted coded numerical instructions into the machine tool. It is
important to realize thatNC is not a machining method; rather, it is a concept of machine
control. Although the most popular applications of NC are in machining, NC can be
applied to many other operations, including welding, sheet metalworking, riveting, etc.
The major advantages of NC over conventional methods of machine control are as
follows:
 Higher precision: NC machine tool are capable of machining at very close tolerances, in
some operations as small as 0.005 mm;
 Low operator qualification: the role of the operation of a NC machine is simply to upload
the work piece and to download the finished part. In some cases, industrial robots are
employed for material handling, thus eliminating the human operator.
 Multi-operational machining: some NC machine tools, for example machine centers, are
capable of accomplishing a very high number of machining operations thus reducing
significantly the number of machine tools in the workshops. Very low operator
qualification: the role of the operation of a NC
 Higher productivity: NC machine tools reduce drastically the non machining time.
Adjusting the machine tool for a different product is as easy as changing the computer
program and tool turret with the new set of cutting tools required for the particular part.
 Better quality: NC systems are capable of maintaining constant working conditions for all
parts in a batch thus ensuring less spread of quality characteristics;

The major disadvantages of NC

 Relatively high initial cost of equipment
 Need for part programming
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 Special maintenance is required

 More costly breakdown

Computer Numerical Control (CNC):

CNC is a self-contained NC system for a single machine tool that uses a dedicated
computer controlled by stored instruction in the memory to implement some or all of the
basic NC functions. It is flexible and relatively low-cost.

Components of a CNC machining system

A Computer Numerical Control (CNC) system offers advanced pro-combinational skill
and technology that is controlled and managed through a coded alpha-numeric system. At
its base, a CNC system consists of five components with functionality that is blended into
a synchronous system. Computer programmed data is then used to control and run the
operations of a CNC system. Every specialist of CNC machine parts in Toronto
understands the components and their essence in making the machining process a success.

Input devices
With a CNC system being controlled and managed through a specialty system, it is
necessary to have an effective way of coordinating the pre-programmed data with the
designed system. These input devices include flash disks, compact discs, and other modern
data transfer components.

The Machining Component

This is a high accuracy system that allows for the machining of the end products. It also
encapsulates the cutting spindles and the systems controlling the machining parts. As a
critical component of the CNC machine parts in Toronto, the processing component
responds to the pre-programmed (coded) computer aided control logic.

Machine Control Unit

At the heart of the CNC system is a high value logic control panel consisting of the data
processing unit (DPU) and a control loop unit (CLU). The DPU component allows for
effective reception and decoding of the programs. Once decoded into machine language,
the interpolator resting on the DPU calculates the exact positions of the cutting spindles.
Once interpreted, the decoded data is relayed to the CLU as electrical signals. The
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machining parts of the device then initiates a motion in respect of the relayed signals.

Driving system
Another critical component of a CNC machine is the driving system that responds to the
pre-programmed instructions by allowing for the cutting of the end products into shape
and design. In its most simple form, the driving system consists of several control motors
whose rotation determines the movement of the cutting spindle.

Feedback device
For a CNC system to operate effectively, there is need to relay feedback about the various
processes during and after every process is completed. The feedback devices include linear
transducers and direct position scales and encoders.

The major advantages of CNC

 Increased productivity
 High accuracy and repeatability
 Reduced production costs
 Reduced indirect operation costs
 Facilitation of complex machining operations

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 Greater flexibility
 Improved production planning and control
 Lower operator skill requirement
 Facilitation of flexible automation

The major disadvantages of CNC

 High initial investment

 High maintenance
 For low production it is costlier process

Applications of CNC

 Aerospace Industry
 Automotive Industry
 Consumer Electronics
 Defense Industry
 Healthcare Sector
 Oil & Gas Industry

3D Printing
3D printing uses computer-aided design to create three-dimensional objects through a
layering method. Sometimes referred to as additive manufacturing, 3D printing involves
layering materials, like plastics, metals, composites or bio-materials to create objects that
range in shape, size, rigidity and colour.

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