TISSUES

Group of cells having common origin, shape, structure and performing a common
function.
 The term tissue was coined by Marie Francois Xavier Bichat in 1792, a French
anatomist, the father of histology (study of tissues).
 Marcello Malpighi is considered as the founder of Histology.
 The term histology was coined by Mayer (1819)
Importance of tissues
- Division of labour in multicellular organisms.
- Tissues join together to form organs and organs to organ systems.
- Improve organisation and higher efficiency.
Division of labour: - The distribution of various functions to different specialized
body cells to achieve the highest efficiency in maintaining proper internal environment
of the body.
Plant tissues Animal tissues

Dead supportive tissues are more Living tissues are more common
abundant than living tissues than dead tissues

Require less maintenance energy Require more maintenance energy

Differentiation of meristematic and No such differentiation
permanent tissues
Continuous to grow throughout life Not show growth after maturity
Simple organisation Complex and more specialised
Tissue organisation for stationary Targeted for high motility
habit

PLANT TISSUES
Types of tissues
Based on the capacity for the division of its cells plant tissues are classified into:-
a. Meristematic tissues
b. Permanent tissues
Meristematic tissues (Meristems)
Undifferentiated and actively dividing cells are called meristematic tissues.
 Classification of meristems
Classification based on the position
1. Apical meristem: - Occur at the tips of roots (root apical meristem) and shoots (shoot
apical meristem).
Some meristematic cells are left behind from shoot apical meristem and constitute
axillary bud seen in the axils of leaves which are capable of forming a branch or a
flower.
Function:-Increase in the length of root and shoot axis
2. Lateral meristem
The meristems present along the lateral sides of dicot stems and roots.
Eg. Vascular cambium, cork cambium
Function: - Growth in thickness of the plant body.
3. Intercalary meristem
Meristems that are seen between mature tissues.
Eg. Nodal region of monocot stem.
Classification based on origin
1. Primary meristems
The meristems which originate from embryonic meristems are called
primary meristems. They appear early in life and contribute to the formation of
primary plant body.
Eg. Apical and intercalary meristems.
2. Secondary meristems
Meristems which originate from permanent tissues is called secondary
meristems.
Eg. Cork cambium, vascular cambium; secondary thickening takes place by the
activity of secondary meristems
General functions: -
- It helps plants in producing new leaves, branches, flowers, fruits, roots, and root
hairs.
- It heals up any injured site in plants by producing new cells.
- It is the primary tissue from which other tissues originate.
PERMANENT TISSUE
A permanent tissue consists of non-dividing cells that are differentiated for various
functions. They are of two types:-
1. Simple tissue
They are made up of one type of cells with common origin and a common
function. They are classified into:-
a) Parenchyma
b) Collenchyma
c) Sclerenchyma
Parenchyma
- Isometric in shape. They may be spherical oval, round polygonal or elongated in
shape.
- Cell wall thin – made up of cellulose
- Either closely packed or with small inter cellular spaces.
- Special types of parenchyma –Chlorenchyma (with chloroplast),Palisade
chlorenchyma, Aerenchyma (with large air cavities)
Functions: - Photosynthesis, Storage, secretion. In aquatic plants, aerenchyma
maintains buoyancy. It is a metabolically active tissue and allows gaseous exchange
through its intercellular space.
Collenchyma
- Living simple permanent tissue
- Cell wall thickened at the corners due to the deposition of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
- May be oval, spherical or polygonal and often contain chloroplast.
Functions:
- Assimilate food when they contain chloroplast.
- Provides mechanical support to the stem and petiole of leaf.
- Provide flexibility to various plant parts, such as leaves and stem, thereby
helping them to bend easily without breaking.
 Sclerenchyma
- These cells have very thick cell walls due to the deposition of lignin (lignified
cell wall). They are usually dead and without protoplast.
- Based on the shape sclerenchyma is of two types
Fibres:-elongated, thick-walled and pointed cells.
Sclereids (stone cells or grit cells): - spherical, oval or cylindrical highly
thickened dead cells with very narrow cavities.
- They are commonly found in fruit wall of nuts, pulp of fruits like guava, pear
and sapota, seed coat of legumes and leaves of tea.
Function:
- Mechanical support
- When present in secondary xylem, facilitate conduction.

Protective tissues
i) Epidermis
ii) Cork
Epidermis
It is the simple permanent tissue, protective in function.
Characters: - formed of living cells, arranged in a single layer. In aerial part it covered
with waxy coating called cuticle. In leaves has small openings called stomata.
Functions: - protect the underlying tissues, cuticle protects against water loss, stomata
help in gaseous exchange. Root epidermis help in water absorption.
Cork (Phellem)
The cells of protective tissue at the periphery change into cork cells.
 Characters: - cells are dead and closely packed. Cell walls are deposited with
waterproof, waxy substance called suberin.
Functions: Protection, Lenticels help in the aeration of inner tissues, Insulation
2. Complex Tissues
Complex tissues is composed of more than one type of cells working together as a
unit for a common function.
They are of two types:-
- Xylem
- Phloem
Xylem
Xylem functions as the conducting tissue for water and minerals. It also provide
mechanical support. It consists of following 4 types of cells.
i. Tracheids - They are elongated dead cells with tapering ends and lignified cell
wall.
Functions: - Conduction of water, mechanical support
ii. Vessels (Trachea) - They are long, cylindrical tube like structures made up of many
dead cells .The vessel cell are devoid of protoplasm. The vessel cells are
interconnected through perforations (perforation plate).
- Presence of vessel is a characteristic feature of angiosperms.
- Gymnosperms lack vessels
Functions: - Upward conduction of water, Mechanical support
iii) Xylem fibres (wood fibres)
They are sclerenchyma cells associated with xylem.
They are thick walled, dead, elongated cells with pointed ends.
The walls are lignified with reduced lumen.
Function: - Mechanical support
iv. Xylem parenchyma(wood parenchyma)
Parenchyma associated with xylem, living and thin walled, walls made up of
cellulose
In angiosperms, the secondary xylem contain radially elongated parenchyma cells
called ray parenchyma. It helps radial conduction of water.
 Functions: - lateral conduction of water, stores food materials in the form of starch
or sugar.
Phloem (bast)
Its complex tissue conducting prepared food in plants. Phloem is composed of types of
cells
- Sieve tubes
- Companion cells
- Phloem fibres
- Phloem parenchyma
- In gymnosperms, the phloem composed of phloem fibres, albuminous cells, and
sieve cells
Sieve tube elements
- Elongated tube like structures, arranged longitudinally and associated with
companion cells.
- End walls are perforated like a sieve to form the sieve plate.
- possess peripheral cytoplasm and large vacuole.
- living but lack of nucleus
Companion cells
- They are specialised parenchymatous cells found associated with sieve tube
elements.
- The sieve tube elements and companion cells are connected by pit field present
between their common longitudinal walls.
Functions: - Helps to maintain pressure gradient in sieve tubes.
Phloem parenchyma
- made up of elongated, tapering cylindrical cells with dense cytoplasm and
nucleus.
- Cell wall is composed of cellulose
- absent in monocots
Function: - storage of food material and other substances like resins, latex, mucilage
etc….
Phloem fibres (bast fibres)
- made up of elongated and thick walled sclerenchymatous cells with pointed
needle like apices.
- Cells are dead and without protoplasm.
- They are absent in primary phloem, but found in secondary phloem
Function: - mechanical support, provide rigidity to the plant organs.
Special permanent tissues
- Laticiferous Tissue:-cells are tubular and filled with latex.
- Glandular Tissue: - secretes gum, resin, mucilage, oil or digestive enzymes.
- Hydathode Tissue: - this tissue is modified to exude water.

ANIMAL TISSUES
Structural organisation in animals
• In unicellular organisms all functions like digestion, respiration etc , are
performed by a single cell.
• In multicellular animals same functions are carried out by a group of cells called
tissues.
 • On the basis of location and functions, animal tissues are divided into 4 major
types:
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Neural tissue
Epithelial tissue
• They form covering for some body parts.
• The cells are compactly packed with little intercellular matrix.
• Epithelium are of two types :
- Simple epithelium
- compound epithelium
Simple epithelium
Single layered epithelium.
Generally it occurs on secretory and absorptive surfaces like body cavities, ducts, and
tubes.
Based on the structural modifications of the cells, the simple epithelium is divided into
7 types
- Squamous epithelium
- Cuboidal epithelium
- Columnar epithelium
- Squamous epithelium
- Made of single layer of flattened cells with irregular boundaries.
Eg: walls of blood vessels and air sacs of lungs. They form the diffusion
boundary
Function: - protection, Exchange of gases, protect against abrasion.
- Cuboidal epithelium
- Cells are cube like
Eg: ducts of glands, tubular parts of nephrons in kidneys
Function: - secretion and absorption, mechanical support
-Columnar epithelium
 Composed of single layer of tall and slender cells. Their nuclei are located at the
base.
Eg: lining of stomach and intestine.
Function: - secretion and absorption,
Ciliated epithelium
If the cuboidal or columnar cells bear cilia on their free ends, they are called
ciliated epithelium
Eg: inner surface of bronchioles and fallopian tube.
Function: - move particles or mucus in a specific direction over epithelium.
Glandular epithelium
Columnar or cuboidal cells are specialised for secretion to form glandular
epithelium
Eg: It lines stomach, intestine and other secretory organs
Functions: - secrete sweat, oil, milk, digestive enzymes and hormones.
Sensory epithelium
It is also modified columnar epithelium. It has sensory cells whose free ends are
produced into sensory hair.
Eg: - found in sense organs like tongue nasal chamber etc.
Function: - pick up external stimuli
Germinal epithelium
It is formed of cuboidal cells. Its cells give rise to germinal cells that develop
into gametes.
Eg: - It lines gonads.
Stratified Keratinized Squamous epithelium
The flattened cells of superficial layer contain a fibrous protein, the keratin and
become dead cells.
- Water proof and highly resistant to mechanical injury.
Compound epithelium
• They are made up of more than one layer of cells.
• Main function is protection against chemical and mechanical stresses.
 • It covers the dry surface of the skin, the moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx,
inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and of pancreatic ducts
Muscle tissue
• The tissue concerned with movement of body parts and the locomotion of
animals.
• Cells of muscle tissue can contract and again return to the relaxed state.
• Each muscle tissue is made up of several muscle cells (muscle fibres).
• In humans muscle tissues are classified into 3 groups:
- Skeletal muscle
- Smooth muscle
- Cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle
- Muscles which are attached to the skeletal bones.
- They help in the movements of the parts of skeleton.
-The activity of skeletal muscles is under the control of will. So, they are also called
Voluntary muscle.
These muscles show cross striations under the microscope. So, these muscles are also
called striated muscles. The cross striations are due to presence of regular alternate
dark bands and light bands.
Smooth muscle
- Muscle which are located in the hollow internal organs.
- This muscles do not show cross striations. So they are also called non- striated
muscles. The activity of these muscles are not under the control of the will, so
they are called involuntary muscles.
- The smooth muscles fibres are shorter than skeletal muscle fibres. They are thin,
elongated spindle shaped cells with tapering ends.
Cardiac muscle
- Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile tissue present only in the heart.
- Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells and make
them stick together.
 - Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some
fusion points allow the cells to contract as a unit, ie, when
one cell receives a signal to contract its neighbours are
also stimulated to contract.

Striated muscles Non striated muscles Cardiac muscles

Found attached to the Occur in the wall of Occur in the heart wall only
skeleton, body wall etc. hollow viscera
Cylindrical cell with blunt Long and spindle Short and cylindrical cell
ends shaped cells form a network
Cells are multinucleate. Cells are uninucleate Cells are uninucleate
Alternate light and dark No light and dark Alternate light and dark
bands present bands bands present
Intercalated discs absent Intercalated discs Intercalated disc present
absent
Contract at will Contract without will Contract without our will
(voluntary) (involuntary)
Fatigued when over No fatigue when over No fatigue when over
worked worked worked

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• It is a tissue that joins, supports, and holds other tissues together.
• It forms a structural frame work for many organs, and also plays a role in body
defence, tissue repair, fat storage, and transmission of materials to other tissues.
• The cells can secrete structural protein fibres called collagen and elastin.
• The connective tissue consists of 3 components – cells, fibres, and matrix.
• The connective tissue is divided into 3 types – loose, dense, and specialised
connective tissue.
Loose connective tissue
- It has cells and fibres loosely arranged in a semifluid ground substance.
- This tissue is of two types
- Areolar tissue
 - Adipose tissue
• Areolar tissue
- It is a loose connective tissue which is composed of cells, fibres, and matrix.
- The cells are fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells. Fibroblasts are the chief
cells of this tissue.
- They produce two type protein – collagen, elastin
- They are present below the skin.
Function:- serves as support framework for epithelium.

• Adipose tissue ( fatty tissue)

- It is a loose connective tissue found below the skin.
- The cells store fats.
- The excess nutrients are converted into fats and stored in adipose tissue.

Dense connective tissue (fibrous connective tissue)

- The matrix is dense.
- The fibres and fibroblasts are arranged densely (compactly) in the matrix.
- It is divided into 2 types – regular and irregular
 • Dense regular connective tissue
- The modified fibroblasts are seen in rows between many parallel bundles of
collagen fibres.
- It is divided into 2 types – tendon and ligament.
Tendon: - it is a connective tissue which helps to join a muscle to a bone.
Ligament: - it help to attach one bone to another
• Dense irregular connective tissue
- It is composed of fibroblasts, collagen fibres, and matrix.
- Fibroblasts and collagen fibres are oriented differently.
- This tissue is present in the skin.
Specialised connective tissue
- It is a connective tissue which is specialised to perform different functions.
These are of 3 types – cartilage, bone, and blood.
Cartilage
- It is solid, pliable, semi-rigid, and flexible specialised connective tissue
- The matrix contains a solid protein called chondrin
- Collagen fibres are embedded in the matrix
- In the matrix, there are many fluid- filled spaces called lacunae
- Each lacunae contains 2 to 3 chondrocytes (cartilage cells)
- Cartilage present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints, between the adjacent
bones.
Bone
- It is solid, rigid, and strong connective tissue
- It is composed of matrix rich in calcium salts and collagen fibres.
- In the matrix bone cells called osteocytes are present in concentric rings called
lamellae.
Functions: - it supports and protects softer tissues and organs
- Limb bones serve weight bearing function.
- They interact with skeletal muscles and help in movements
- The bone marrow in some bones is the site of production of blood cells
- Bone provides structural frame to the body.
Blood
- It is a fluid connective tissue.
- It consists of plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), and
platelets.
Functions: - transport of various substances.
• RBC
- Large in number and have red respiratory pigment, the haemoglobin, which is
dense in iron content.
- Erythrocytes plays and important role in transport of oxygen.
- The shape of erythrocytes may varies
Oval and biconvex- vertebrates
Disc like and biconcave – mammals. Because of the special shape it carry
more amount of haemoglobin and more efficient in gaseous exchange.
Mammalian RBC is without nucleus (exception camel RBC).
• WBC
- Phagocytes
Support immune system by engulfing pathogens.
They are of 2 types -
- Granulocytes (neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil)
- Agranulocytes (monocytes, lymphocytes)
Platelets or thrombocytes: - the platelets factors help in repairing injured tissues and
promote blood coagulation. They are megakaryocytes formed from the bone marrow.
General functions of blood:
- Transportation of gases, nutrients and hormones
- Elimination metabolic wastes from the tissues.
- RBC are responsible for oxygen and carbon dioxide transportation.
- WBC are responsible for the immunity of our body by producing antitoxins and
antibodies.
- Platelets help in blood coagulation and tissue repair.
Lymph
- A colourless fluid that is filtered out from the blood capillaries.
- Composition is same as blood except RBCs and certain blood proteins.
Functions: - nutrient transport (fats, oxygen)
- It carry CO2 and nitrogenous wastes.
- Part of immune system
Nervous tissue
- Specialised for transmit impulses within our body.
- Nervous tissue composed of neurons or nerve cells.
Neuron has 3 parts
- Cyton or cell body of a neuron has a prominent nucleus and cytoplasm. Beside cell
organelles the cytoplasm has Nissl’s granules and neurofibrils.
- Dendrones (branching called dendrites) are short hair like extensions arising from
cyton.
- Axon or nerve fibre is a large fibre that arises from the cyton of a nerve cell. It is
covered with myelin sheath, which acts as an insulating layer. The knobbed nerve ends
at nerve endings are called synaptic knobs or bouton. The junction where one neuron
joins another neuron is called synapse.

Functions: - nerve fibres conduct messages from one part of the body to the other.
- Impulses from brain and spinal cord are carried to various body organs
to control and coordinate.
- All conscious activities are mediated through nervous tissue.