Sound Wave
Fundamentals
Ultrasound utilizes sound waves, which are mechanical vibrations
traveling through a medium. These waves possess properties like
frequency, wavelength, and amplitude, dictating their behavior and
interaction with tissues. The diagnostic process relies on
understanding how these waves propagate, reflect off different
structures, and lose energy through attenuation as they traverse the
body.
Continued…
Reflection is key for image formation, as returning echoes are detected by the
transducer. Attenuation, the weakening of the sound beam, affects image
clarity and depth penetration, requiring careful adjustment of system
parameters. These basic principles form the bedrock of all ultrasound imaging
techniques.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
Propagation of Sound
Sound is mechanical energy that propagates through a continuous, elastic
medium by the compression and rarefaction of “particles” that compose it
Compression is caused by a mechanical deformation induced by an external force
(such as a plane piston), with a resultant increase in the pressure of the medium
Rarefaction occurs following the compression event; as the backward motion of the
piston reverses the force
Continued
a series of compressions and rarefactions propagate through the continuous
medium
Energy propagation occurs as a wave front in the direction of energy travel, known
as a longitudinal wave.
Wavelength, Frequency, and Speed
The wavelength is the distance between compressions or rarefactions or between
any two points that repeat on the sinusoidal wave of pressure amplitude
FRQUENCY
The frequency (f) is the number of times the wave oscillates through a cycle each
second (sec )
Sound waves with frequencies less than 15 cycles/sec (Hz) are called infrasound
The ultrasound frequency is unaffected by changes in sound speed as the acoustic
beam propagates through various media
Period (T)
The period is the time duration of one wave cycle and is equal to 1/f where f
is expressed in cycles/sec
The speed of sound is the distance traveled by the wave per unit time and is
equal to the wavelength divided by the period
The speed of sound is dependent on the propagation medium and varies
widely
in different materials
Continued
A highly compressible medium, such as air, has a low speed of sound, while a
less compressible medium, such as bone, has a higher speed of sound.
the average speed for soft tissue (1,540 m/sec), and fatty tissue (1,450
m/sec)
The difference in the speed of sound at tissue boundaries is a fundamental cause of
contrast in an ultrasound image
DENSITY AND SPEED OF SOUND IN TISSUES
AND MATERIALS FOR MEDICAL ULTRASOUND
Wavelengths in soft tissue are shown for 2-
MHz, 5-MHz, and 10-MHz ultrasound.
change in speed at an interface between two media causes a change in
wavelength.
The resolution of the ultrasound image and the attenuation of the ultrasound
beam energy depend on the wavelength and frequency
Ultrasound wavelength determines the spatial resolution achievable along the
direction of the beam
A high-frequency ultrasound beam (small wavelength) provides superior
resolution and image detail than a low-frequency beam.
However, the depth of beam penetration is reduced higher frequency
Probe Types
Curvilinear
Wide field of view for deep structures.
Linear
High resolution for superficial imaging.
Phased Array
Cardiac and abdominal penetration.
Specialty Probes
For specific anatomical needs.
Continued
* Linear Array:
• Elements are arranged in a straight line. A small group of elements
fires, then the next group, and so on.
• Produces a rectangular field of view.
• Typically higher frequency, best for superficial imaging.
• Phased Array (Sector):
• All elements are fired nearly simultaneously, but with tiny time
delays.
• This allows the beam to be electronically steered and focused
without moving the probe.
• Produces a pie-shaped (sector) field of view. Useful for imaging
between ribs.
TRANSDUCERS
Ultrasound is produced and detected with a transducer
Is composed of one or more ceramic elements with electromechanical properties
ceramic element
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy to produce ultrasound and
mechanical energy into electrical energy for ultrasound detection
simple single-element, plane-piston source
transducer
Major components include
the piezoelectric material
matching layer
backing block
acoustic absorber
insulating cover
sensor electrodes
and transducer housing
An ultrasound transducer is composed of
three main parts
Piezoelectric Materials
often a crystal or ceramic is the functional component of the transducer.
It converts electrical energy into mechanical (sound) energy by physical
deformation of the crystal structure
Conversely, mechanical pressure applied to its surface creates electrical
energy are characterized by a well-defined molecular arrangement of
electrical dipoles (has no net charge )
mechanically compressed dipoles cause an imbalance of the charge distribution.
A potential difference (voltage) is created across the element with one surface maintaining
a net positive charge and one surface a net negative charge.
Conversely, application of an external voltage through conductors attached to the surface
electrodes induces the mechanical expansion and contraction of the transducer element.
INTERACTIONS OF ULTRASOUND WITH
MATTER
is determined by the acoustic properties of matter
As ultrasound energy propagates through a medium,
interactions that occur include
reflection
refraction
scattering
and absorption
Reflection occurs at tissue boundaries where there is a
difference in the acoustic impedance of adjacent materials
Reflection
occurs because of the differences in the acoustic impedances of the two
tissues.
the reflection pressure amplitude coefficient, Rp, is defined as the ratio of
reflected pressure, Pr, and incident pressure, Pi, as :
Reflected Echo’s
Strong Reflections = White dots
Diaphragm, tendons, bone ‘Hyperechoic’
Reflected Echo’s
Weaker Reflections =
Grey dots
Most solid organs,
thick fluid – ‘isoechoic’
Reflected Echo’s
No Reflections = Black dots
Fluid within a cyst, urine, blood
‘Hypoechoic’ or echofree
us_ijv_tx_bmode
What determines how far ultrasound
waves can travel?
The FREQUENCY of the transducer
The HIGHER the frequency, the LESS it can penetrate
The LOWER the frequency, the DEEPER it can penetrate
Attenuation is directly related to frequency
Refraction
Refraction describes the change in direction of the transmitted ultrasound a
tissue boundary when the beam is not perpendicular to the boundary.
Ultrasound frequency does not change when propagating into the next tissue,
but a change in the speed of sound may occur.
Scattering
A specular reflector
is a smooth boundary between two media, where the dimensions of the boundary are
much larger than the wavelength of the incident ultrasound energy
Acoustic scattering arises from objects within a tissue that are about the size of the
wavelength or smaller, and represent a rough or nonspecular reflector surface
reflect sound in all directions
the amplitudes of the returning echoes are significantly weaker than echoes from tissue
boundaries
Fig The characterization of a boundary as specular and nonspecular is partially
dependent on the wave length of the incident ultrasound. As the wavelength
becomes smaller, the boundary becomes “rough,” resulting in diffuse reflections
from the surface because of irregularities. Small particle reflectors within a
tissue or organ cause a diffuse scattering pattern that is characteristic of the
particle size, giving rise to specific tissue or organ “signatures.”
Attenuation
the loss of acoustic energy with distance traveled,
is caused chiefly by scattering and tissue absorption of the
incident beam
Absorbed acoustic energy is converted to heat in the tissue
Echo Display Modes
A-Mode
A-mode (A for amplitude) is the display of the processed information from the receiver
versus time
The earliest uses of ultrasound in medicine used A-mode information to determine the
midline position of the brain for revealing possible mass effect of brain tumors
A-mode display by itself is seldom used.
continued
B-Mode
B-mode (B for brightness) is the electronic conversion of the A-mode and A-line information
into brightness-modulated dots on a display screen
the brightness of the dot is proportional to the echo signal amplitude
M-Mode
M-mode (M for motion) is a technique that uses B-mode information to display the echoes
from a moving organ
Example the myocardium and valve leaflets, from a fixed transducer position and beam direction
on the patient
The echo data from a single ultrasound beam passing through moving anatomy are
acquired and displayed as a function of time, represented by reflector depth on the
vertical axis
M-mode can provide excellent temporal resolution of motion patterns, allowing the
evaluation of the function of heart valves and other cardiac anatomy
Image Controls
Gain
Adjusts overall image brightness by controlling signal
amplification. Proper gain settings ensure subtle echoes
are visualized without making the image too bright or too
dark, optimizing contrast and detail. Too much gain
introduces noise, while insufficient gain obscures
important structures.
Depth
Determines how far into the body the ultrasound beam
penetrates to display images. Setting an appropriate
depth is crucial for visualizing structures at various levels,
ensuring that both superficial and deep organs are
adequately represented on the screen. Incorrect depth
settings can lead to cutoff images or a lack of detail.
Focus
Concentrates the sound beam energy at a specific depth to improve lateral
resolution and image sharpness. Multiple focal zones can be used to optimize
clarity throughout the image. Precise focus enhances the detail of critical
anatomical structures for accurate diagnosis.
Patient Preparation
Fasting Bladder Filling Hydration
Fasting for several hours A full bladder acts as an Adequate fluid intake before the
reduces bowel gas and food in acoustic window. It pushes exam ensures a properly filled
the stomach. This clears the bowel loops superiorly and bladder. Following specific
view for abdominal and pelvic enhances visualization of pelvic instructions is vital for optimal
organs. structures. imaging.
Ultrasound Basics Recap
Reflection
Echoes bouncing off tissue
Sound Waves interfaces create the image. The
strength of reflection depends on
Mechanical vibrations traveling tissue properties.
through a medium, forming the
basis of ultrasound imaging.
Frequency and wavelength
determine image characteristics. Attenuation
The weakening of the sound beam
as it travels and interacts with
tissues. This impacts image
penetration and quality.
Understanding these core concepts is essential for effective ultrasound operation and interpretation.
Image Formation
Echoes
The ultrasound machine emits pulses of sound, and when these pulses strike boundaries between different
tissues, they reflect back as echoes. The timing and strength of these returning echoes are precisely
measured by the transducer. These echo signals are then processed and converted into the visual image
displayed on the screen, allowing visualization of internal structures based on their acoustic properties.
Different tissues produce echoes of varying intensity, contributing to the contrast seen in the final image.
Image Creation
The system interprets the received echoes to map the location and characteristics of internal structures.
Brighter pixels typically represent stronger echoes, originating from highly reflective surfaces like bone or
calcifications, while darker areas indicate weaker or absent echoes from fluid-filled structures or soft tissues.
This process allows for non-invasive visualization of anatomy and pathology.
Setting Adjustments
Gain Control
1 Adjusts overall image brightness by amplifying returning signals. Crucial for visualizing subtle differences in tissue
echogenicity.
Depth Selection
2
Sets the maximum imaging depth, ensuring all relevant structures are within the field of view.
Focus Zones
3
Optimizes image resolution at specific depths for enhanced detail and diagnostic accuracy.
Scan Readiness
Proper patient preparation significantly enhances the quality and diagnostic value of ultrasound
examinations. Ensuring the patient has fasted reduces artifacts from gas and undigested food, providing a
clearer window into the abdominal cavity.
A well-filled urinary bladder is critical, acting as an acoustic coupler that improves sound transmission and
displaces overlying bowel loops, thereby revealing pelvic organs with greater clarity.
Adhering to these preparatory guidelines ensures that the ultrasound technician can obtain the best
possible images for accurate medical assessment.