Alignment and Surveys

Alignment

Alignment of the railway line refers to the (a) direction and (b) position given to the centre line of the track

on the ground in horizontal and vertical plane.

Horizontal alignment- refers to direction of railway track in plan which includes straight path and curves

Vertical alignment- refers to direction of railway track in vertical plane including level track, gradients,

and vertical curves.

Alignment should be carefully selected, since it is difficult to change the alignment after construction. In

fact, a poor selection may lead to improper alignment, waste of capital and costly structures, difficulty in

getting additional land for new alignment.

• The need for construction of a new railway line arises because of one or more of the following considerations.

(a) Strategic reasons It is sometimes necessary to extend the existing railway line to a new point of strategic importance so

that the defence forces can move quickly to the same areas in case of any emergency such as the threat of war.

(b) Political reasons A new line sometimes becomes necessary to serve the political needs of the country, for example, the

railway line from Pathankot to Jammu.

(c) Development of backward areas Railway lines are sometimes constructed to develop backward areas. Experience has

shown that once railway communication is available, backward areas develop very fast. The Assam rail link can be classified

in this category.
• (d) To connect new trade centres Sometimes new trade centers relate to railway lines for the quick

transportation of goods between two trade centres or from the point of production to the point of consumption.

• (e) To shorten the existing rail link: The existing routes between two important points may be longer than

required. New railway lines are constructed on a shorter alignment in such cases. A short route is not only

economical but also helps in the faster movement of goods and passengers. The Konkan Railway is a typical

example.
 What are the basic Requirements of an Ideal Alignment?

• Integrated development: It should fit in with the general planning and form a part of integrated development.

• Economic considerations:
• Economical: Should be cost-effective

• Selection of shortest route: Shorter the route, lower is the railway line, cost of construction, maintenance and
operation, and less land requirement.

• Construction and maintenance cost: Selection of alignment should lead to lower cost of construction by
achieving balanced cut and fill of earthwork, minimize rock cutting and drainage crossings and other design
considerations. Further, maintenance cost may be reduced by avoiding steep gradients and sharp curves which
often leads to heavy wear and tear of rails and rolling stocks.

• Minimum operational expenses: Providing easy gradient, avoiding sharp curves and direct routes maximizes the
hauling capacity of the locomotive resulting in minimizing the operational expenses. Thus, such type of
alignment shall be preferred.
Maximum safety and comfort:

Alignment should be selected in such manner which offers maximum safety and comfort to the travellers by

designing proper transition lengths, vertical curves for gradient and other technical features.

Aesthetic considerations:

Should be given due weightage so that the journey is visually pleasing. This can be achieved by avoiding views of

borrow pits and passing the alignment through natural and beautiful surroundings with scenic beauty.

Is it possible to always get direct route or the shortest route? No

How to select a good alignment?

Choice of gauge

The gauge can be a BG (1676 mm), an MG (1000 mm), or even an NG (762 mm). As per the latest policy of the
Government of India, new railway lines are constructed on BG only.

Obligatory or controlling points: These are the points through which the railway line must pass due to political,
strategic, and commercial reasons as well as due to technical considerations. The following are the obligatory or
controlling points:

Important cities and towns: These are mostly intermediate important towns, cities, or places which are of
commercial, strategic, or political importance.

Major bridge sites and river crossings: The construction of major bridges for large rivers is very expensive and suitable
bridge sites become obligatory points for a good alignment.
Obligatory or controlling points:
Existing passes and saddles in hilly terrain: Existing passes and saddles should be identified for crossing a hilly
terrain in order to avoid deep cuttings and high banks.

Sites for tunnels: The option of a tunnel in place of a deep cut in a hilly terrain is better from an economical viewpoint.
The exact site of such a tunnel becomes an obligatory point.

Topography of the country: The alignment of a new railway line depends upon the topography of the country it traverses.

Plane alignment: When the topography is plane and flat, the alignment presents no problems and can pass through
obligatory points and yet have very easy gradients.

Valley alignment: The alignment of a railway line in a valley is simple and does not pose any problem. If two control
points lie in the same valley, a straight line is provided between these points with a uniform gradient.
Cross-country alignment: The alignment of a railway line in such terrain crosses the watersheds of two or more
streams of varied sizes. As the levels vary in cross-country, the gradients are steep and varying and there are sags
and summits. The controlling or obligatory points for cross-country alignment may be the lowest saddles or
tunnels. It may be desirable to align the line for some length along the watersheds so that some of the drainage
crossings may be avoided.

Mountain alignment: The levels in mountains vary considerably, and if normal alignment is adopted, the grades
would become too steep, much more than the ruling gradient (allowable gradient). In order to remain within the
ruling gradient, the length of railway line is increased artificially by any of the following methods:
(a) Zigzag line method
(b) Switch back method
(c) Spiral complete method
Geometrical standards:

Geometrical standards should be so adopted as to economize as much as possible as well as provide safety and
comfort to passengers. This can be done by adopting gradients and curves within permissible limits. Transition as
well as vertical curves should be used to provide better comfort and safety.

Geological formation

The alignment should be so selected that it normally runs on good and stable soil formation as far as possible. Weak
soil and marshy land present a number of problems including those of maintenance. Though rocky soil provides a
stable formation, it is a costly proposal.
Effect of flood and climate

The alignment should normally pass through areas which are not likely to be flooded. The climatic conditions should
also be taken into consideration for alignment. In hot climate and sandy areas, the alignment should pass by those
sides of sand dunes that face away from the direction of the wind. Similarly, in cold regions, the alignment should pass
by those sides of hills that face away from the direction of the wind. A sunny side is more desirable.

Position of roads and road crossings

A railway line should cross a road at right angles so as to have a perpendicular level crossing and avoid accidents.
Proximity of labour and material

The availability and proximity of local labour and good and economical building material should also be considered
when deciding the alignment.

Location of railway stations and yards

Railway stations and yards should be located on level stretches of land, preferably on the outskirts of a town or
village so as to have enough area for the free flow of traffic.

Religious and historical monuments

The alignment should avoid religious and historical monuments, as it is normally not possible to dismantle these
buildings.
Cost considerations

The alignment should be such that the cost of construction of the railway line is as low as possible. Not only the initial
cost of construction but also the maintenance cost should be as low as possible. For this purpose, the alignment
should be as straight as possible, with least earthwork, and should pass through a terrain with good soil.

Traffic considerations

The alignment should be so selected that it attracts maximum traffic. In this context, traffic centers should be well
planned, so that the railway line is well patronized and the gross revenue arising out of traffic receipts is as high as
possible.
Economic considerations

Keeping in mind the various considerations, it should be ensured that the alignment is overall economical.

For this purpose, various alternate alignments are considered and the most economical one, which is cost-effective
and gives the maximum returns is chosen.

The maximum annual (𝛾) return is calculated by the formula: 𝛾 = (R-E)/I

Where,
R is the gross revenue earned by the railway line,
E denotes the annual running expenses and
I means investment.
R depends upon the route that proves to be advantageous when taking traffic into consideration and, therefore, should
be given due weightage.

The other way to maximize the annual return is to have sound and economical construction work so as to reduce the
annual running expenses.

A suitable balance has to be achieved between construction cost and operating expenses.

Political considerations
The alignment should take into account political considerations also. It should not enter foreign soil and should
preferably be away from common border areas.