Engineering Physics Notes 1 Module 5- Communication Physics

Module 5-COMMUNICATION PHYSICS

Communication: Communication is the phenomenon of transmission of information. Communication involves

processing, sending and receiving of information.

Information: Information is defined as the manifestation of a physically measurable quantity in the form of
signal or data as produced by the source. Information enables us to state the outcome of a measurement. Instead
of information, we also use the word "message". There are two different types of messages namely Anlog
message and Digital message. An analog message is a physical quantity which varies with time continuously.
Examples: (i) The acoustic pressure produced when we speak, (ii) The light intensity at some point in a
television image.

A digital message is an ordered sequence of symbols selected from a finite set of discrete elements.
Examples: (i) letters printed on a page (ii) the keys you press at a computer terminal.
Both analog or digital messages need to be converted into an electrical signals for processing. There are only
few messages, which are inherently electrical.

ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

There are three essential parts of any communication system.
They are Transmitter, Transmission channel, and Receiver.
The following figure shows the elements of a communication
system. The transmitter processes the input signal to produce
a transmitted signal suitable to the characteristics of the
transmission channel. Signal processing involves modulation
and coding.
The transmission channel is the electrical medium that bridges
the distance from source to destination. It consists of a pair of
wires, a coaxial cable, or a radio wave or laser beam. Every
channel introduces some amount of transmission loss
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(attenuation). Hence, the signal power decreases progressively with increasing distance. The receiver operates
on the output signal from the channel for delivery to the transducer at the destination. Receiver operations
include amplification demodulation and decoding of the signal.

Communication is of two basic types namely point-to-point mode of communication and broadcast mode of
communication. In point-to-point communication mode, communication takes place over a link between a
single transmitter and a receiver. Telephone is an example of such a mode of communication. In the broadcast
mode, there are a large number of receivers corresponding to a single transmitter. Radio and television are
examples of broadcast mode of communication.

Bandwidth: It is the frequency range over which a device operates & It

refers to the portion of the spectrum occupied.

Bandwidth of Signals: Analog signals like speech signals have Band width
2800 Hz (3100 Hz – 300 Hz), For music 20 kHz is required & Video
requires about 4.2 MHz of bandwidth.

Bandwidth of Transmission medium: Cable offers a bandwidth 750 MHz.

Optical fiber communication has a frequency range of 1 THz to 1000 THz
and free space communication using radio waves 580 kHz to 6.5 GHz. The
free space frequency range is subdivided into short wave, medium wave and
long wave and are allocated for various services as shown in the table.
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PROPOGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

In broadcast mode of communication using radio waves composition of the earth’s atmosphere plays a vital role. There
are three different types of propagation of radio waves. They are i) Ground wave propagation, ii) Sky wave propagation
and iii) Space wave propagation

1. Ground wave propagation: The propagation of the communication waves along the surface of the earth is
called ground wave propagation. The range of propagation extends upto 5km from earth’s surface. This
propagation also known as surface wave propagation or medium wave propagation. Ground wave propagation
is possible only for those waves which have very less frequency upto 2MHz. This propagation is used for local
broadcasting. The antennas used to radiate and receive ground waves should have size comparable to their
wavelength (at least~λ/4). For longer wavelengths, transmission the antennas have large physical size. For such
antennas, ground has a strong influence on the propagation of the signal. These waves bend round the obstacles
which come in the path of these waves. Due to this bending through the obstacles, the intensity of the
electromagnetic waves will decrease rapidly. Also change in frequency of these waves due to earth’s effect
affects the signal strength. As the frequency increases, the propagating signal will become weaker.

2. Sky wave propagation: The propagation of

radio waves which extends from a height of 65
Km to 400 Km above the earth’s surface is
called sky wave propagation. Their frequency
ranges from 2MHz to 40MHz. These waves are
reflected by ionosphere of earth. The
ionosphere consists of large number of ions or
charged particles. Ionization occurs due to the
absorption of the ultraviolet and other high-
energy radiation coming from the sun by air
molecules. Sky waves are reflected from
Ionosphere and sent towards the earth to reach
the receiver antenna. This propagation is used
for Short wave broad cast for long distances.
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3. Space Wave Propagation:

The propagation of communication within 20 km of the atmosphere is called Space wave communication. They
are comprised of a direct and reflected waves. These waves have high frequencies of the order of 40 MHz.
Their communication is limited to line-of-sight paths. Hence space wave propagation is also called line of sight
propagation. In the line of sight propagation space waves travel in a straight line from transmitting antenna to
the receiving antenna. The line of sight distance is that exact distance at which both the transmitter and receiver
antenna are in sight of each other (each can be seen from the other). So the transmission distance can be
changed by altering the heights of both the transmitter and receiver antenna. This type of propagation is used in
Radar, Satellite and Television communication. Space waves can travel directly or can travel after reflecting
from earth’s surface to the troposphere surface of earth. So this propagation is also called as Tropospherical
Propagation.

Comparative study of three modes of propagation:

Ground wave propagation Sky wave propagation Space Wave Propagation
It is the propagation of the The wave propagation extending from a height If the propagation of communication
communication waves along of ~ 65 Km to about 400 Km above the earth’s waves occurs within 20 km of the
the surface of the earth upto surface. atmosphere it is called Space wave
5kilometers. communication.
These waves have very less frequency ranges from 2MHz to 40MHz They have frequencies above 54 MHz-
frequency ~2MHz & hence 4.2GHz
called medium wave
propagation
These waves bend round the These waves are reflected by ionosphere of The communication is limited to line-
obstacles which come in the earth. The ionosphere contains large number of of-sight paths. Space wave
path of these waves & the ions or charged particles ionized due to the propagation is also called line of sight
intensity will decrease absorption of the ultraviolet and high-energy propagation. Line of sight distance is
rapidly. Ground has a strong radiation by air molecules. Ionospheric distance at which both the sender and
influence on the propagation reflection of radio waves sends them towards the receiver antenna are in sight of each
of the signal earth. other (can see each other).
This propagation is used for This propagation is used for Short wave This type of propagation is used in
Local broad cast. broad cast for long distances Radar, Satellite and Television
communication.

Size of the antenna or aerial

For transmitting a signal, we need an antenna (or an aerial). This antenna should have a size comparable to the
wavelength of the signal (at least λ/4 in dimension) so that the antenna properly senses the time variation of the
signal. Therefore length of the antenna can be calculated using the following relation.

Consider the propagation of signals of 1MHz frequency. The length of the antenna required for the propagation
is as given below.

This is a practically possible length. An antenna of 300m length can be constructed. This shows that
information contained in low frequency signal should be converted into high frequency or radio frequency
(~MHz) before transmission.
Power radiated by an antenna
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It is found that the power radiated by an antenna is proportional to (l/λ)2 where l is the length of the antenna and
λ is the wavelength of signal. This shows that for a given antenna length, the power radiated increases with
decreasing wavelength (λ). In other words, as the frequency of the propagating signal increases its radiation
power also increases. For effective transmission, we need high frequency waves which have high power.

IONOSPHERIC EFFECTS ON RADIO WAVES PROPAGATION

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RAY PATH:
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SKIP DISTANCE:
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Relation between SKIP DISTANCE and MUF for FLAT SURFACE

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Equation (15) represents the relation between skip distance and Maximum usable frequency.

REMOTE SENSING

“Remote Sensing is the process of gathering information about objects or areas from far
distance without having any physical contact with them. It involves detecting and
measuring the energy reflected or emitted from the targeted area.

Remote sensing uses satellites and other aerial technologies with advanced sensor technologies
to detect energy reflected from the target. This makes it possible to collect data from
inaccessible or dangerous areas to collect data manually.

Principle of remote sensing:

The principle of remote sensing is the use of electromagnetic waves to detect and record the
energy reflected or emitted by the target.
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Requisites of Remote Sensing

(i) Platform: The carrier for remote sensing sensors is characterized as a platform. Ground-based platforms
(towers and cranes), aerial platforms (helicopters, low-altitude planes, and high-altitude planes), and spaceborne
platforms are the three primary remote sensing plot forms (space shuttles, polar-orbiting satellites, and
geostationary satellites).
(ii) Sensors: It is a gadget that takes in electromagnetic radiation and turns it into a signal that may be stored
and presented as numerical data or a picture.

Remote Sensing Process:

The process of Remote Sensing involves an interaction between the incoming radiation and target. The
following steps are involved in the process.
[Link] Source - Energy source illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target. The energy is in
the form of Electromagnetic Radiation. It is either natural originating from the Sun or earth by emission or by
artificial means.

2. Radiation and the Atmosphere - As the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact
with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place twice as it travels back
from the target to the sensor near the source.

3. Interaction with the Target – Energy in the form of radiation is incident on the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the nature of both the target and radiation.
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4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor - After the energy gets scattered or emitted from the target, a sensor
(remote - not in contact with the target) is used to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.

5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing - The energy recorded by the sensor will be transmitted, in
electronic form, to a receiving station where the data is processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

6. Interpretation and Analysis - The processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically,
to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

7. Application- The final stage of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply the extracted
information. This reveals some new information or assist in solving environmental issues like water quality,
vegetation composition, soil qualities, or plant health.

TYPES OF REMOTE SENSING

Two common types of remote sensing are available: Active remote sensing and Passive remote
sensing. Accordingly sensors are called Active and passive sensors . An active sensor sends out its own
radiation signal and measures it when it is reflected by the target surface. A passive sensor detects solar
radiation that is reflected or released by target.

Passive sensors: Passive sensor receives naturally emitted EM energy within its field of view (FIV) and
performs measurement using it. Examples: remote sensing satellite, SPOT-1, LANDSAT-1 etc.
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Passive sensors rely on other sources such as sun for its operation and hence do not require their own energy
source, making them simpler equipment in general.

Most passive optical sensors are limited by the fact that they require daylight to work, while certain sensors can
capture nocturnal lights and clouds, as well as energy released from the Earth's surface. Passive sensors obtain
measurements only in day time.

Most passive sensors function in the visible and infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum and few passive
sensors work in microwave region and are used to monitor variables like wind speed, air and sea surface
temperature, soil moisture, rainfall, and atmospheric water vapor. Weather and cloud cover have a negative
impact on these sensors since they operate in the visible and infrared wavelengths. Sunlight is mainly reflected
from the top of a target such. So in certain cases like measurement of plantation density it is not accurate to the
quantify plant structure under a canopy.

Active sensors: Radar (radiation detection and ranging) and LIDAR (light detection and ranging) are active
sensors that use their own energy to light a target and consist of a signal generator and receiver. Radar and Lidar
measure the signal intensity and the time delay when the sensor produces energy and receives the reflected
radiation.

Active sensor emits their own EM (Electromagnetic) energy which is transmitted towards the earth and receives
energy reflected from the earth. The received EM energy is used for measurement purpose. • Examples:
communication satellite, earth observation satellite (e.g. RADARSAT-1), LISS-1 etc. • Active sensors use their
own source of energy for operation. • Active sensors can obtain measurements anytime (Day & Night).

USES OF REMOTE SENSING

1. Land Use Mapping

Remote sensing data can be used to get the most up-to-date land use patterns for large areas at any given time,
as well as track changes over time. It may be used to update road maps, assess asphalt conditions, and identify
wetlands. Regional planners and administrators utilize this data to help them formulate policies for the region's
overall growth.
2. Weather Forecasting
In India, remote sensing is widely employed for weather forecasting. It's also used to alert people of
approaching cyclones.
3. Environmental Study
It may be used to investigate deforestation, land degradation, air pollution, desertification, eutrophication of
huge bodies of water, and oil spillage from oil tankers.
4. Study of Natural hazards
Earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, floods, and ice melting in polar locations may all be studied via remote
sensing. Remote sensing may often be used to anticipate the advent of natural disasters.
5. Resource exploration
Remote sensing data is useful for updating existing geological maps, producing lineament and tectonic maps
quickly, detecting mineral quarrying sites, and discovering fossil fuel resources
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Advantages of Remote Sensing

(i) Remote sensing is a quick method. Sensors are put on an aircraft, drone, or even a satellite to measure
light reflections from surfaces. The sensors' location allows them to cover a broad region in a short
amount of time. Once data from remote sensors has been acquired, it may be reused.
(ii) Alternatively, data acquired from forests to assess wildfire danger may be utilised to track biodiversity.
LiDAR, a remote sensing technique, captures point cloud data.
(iii)Since data is examined in a lab using software, the amount of effort required in the field is reduced.
surveys and post-scan analysis can be carried out by small groups.
(iv) Remote sensing does not disrupt the scanned environment because this light is safe to objects,
vegetation, and humans. As a result, it's ideal for surveying urban areas since no highways need to be
closed, and communities can go about their business as usual.
Disadvantages of Remote Sensing
1. Remote sensing equipment must be calibrated before use in order to acquire reliable measurements. If the
instruments aren't calibrated properly, this leaves the possibility for human error.

2. Remote sensing data with high resolution might be difficult to store. You may collect data in a variety of
sizes and resolutions with remote sensing. However, collecting high-resolution data might be challenging to
store. Large projects might need storage of hundreds of terabytes.

RADIATION DETECTION AND RANGING (RADAR)

RADAR, an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging, is a technology that uses radio waves to detect and
locate objects. It has a wide array of applications, from military and aviation to weather forecasting and speed
enforcement. It employs EM waves that fall into the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (1 mm
< l < 75 cm). Understanding the physics behind RADAR involves delving into the principles of electromagnetic
waves, signal processing and the interaction of these waves with objects.
Basic Principle of RADAR
RADAR systems work by transmitting electromagnetic waves and analysing the waves that are reflected back
from objects. The key principles involved include the following stages.
1. Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves: RADAR systems use radio waves, a form of electromagnetic
radiation. These waves travel at the speed of light (approximately 3 x 108 meters per second) and can
propagate through various media, including air, rain, and clouds.

2. Transmission and Reception: A RADAR system consists of a transmitter, which emits radio waves,
and a receiver, which detects the waves that are reflected back. The transmitter sends out pulses of radio
waves in a specific direction. When these waves encounter an object, they are scattered in various
directions. Some of the scattered waves are reflected back to the RADAR receiver.
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3. Time Delay and Distance Calculation: By measuring the time delay between the transmission of the
pulse and the reception of the echo, the RADAR system can determine the distance to the object. This

distance R can be calculated using the formula:

where 𝑐 is the speed of light and 𝑡 is the time delay.
4. Doppler Effect: RADAR can also determine the relative velocity of an object using the Doppler effect.
When an object is moving, the frequency of the reflected waves changes. If the object is moving towards
the RADAR, the frequency increases; if it is moving away, the frequency decreases. The change in
frequency Δf is related to the velocity 𝑣 of the object as given below.

where 𝜆 is the wavelength of the transmitted waves.

RADAR TERMINOLOGY:
Echo: Echo is a reflected electromagnetic wave from a target and it is received by radar receiver. The echo
signal power is captured by the effective area of the receiving space antenna.
Duplexer: It is a microwave switch which connects the transmitter and receiver to the antenna
alternatively. It protects the receiver from high power output of the transmitter. It allows the use
of the single antenna for both radar transmistion and reception. It balnks the receiver during the
transmitting period.

Antenna: It is a device which acts as a transducer between transmitter and free space and
between free space and receiver. It converts electromagnetic energy into electrical energy at
receiving side and converts the electrical energy into electromagnetic energy at the transmitting
side. Antenna is a source and a sensor of electromagnetic waves. It is also an impedence
matching device and a radiator of electromagnetic waves.
Transmitter: It conditions the signals interest and connects them to the antenna. The
transmitter generates high power RF energy. It consists of magnetron or klystron or travelling
wave tube or cross field amplifier.
Receiver: It receives the signals from the receiving antenna and connects them to display. The
receiver amplifies weak return pulses and separates noise and clutter.
Synchronizer: It synchronizes and coordinates the timing for range determination. It regulates
PRF and resets for each pulse. Synchronizer connects the signals simultaneously to transmitter
and display. It maintains timing of transmitted pulses. It ensures that all components and devices
operate in a fixed time relationship.
Display: It isa device to present the received information for the operator to interpet. It provides visual
presentation of echoes.

Range of Radar: It is the distance of object from the location of radar, R = VoΔt/2
Where, Vo = velocity of EM wave, Δt = The time taken to receiver echo from the object.
Radar Pulse: It is a modulated radiated frequency carrier wave. The carrier frequency is the
transmitter oscillator frequency and it influences antenna size and beamwidth.
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Components of a RADAR System

A typical RADAR system includes the following components:

1. Transmitter: Generates and amplifies the radio frequency (RF) signal. The transmitter can use various
types of oscillators, such as magnetrons or klystrons, to produce the desired RF signal.
2. Antenna: Radiates the transmitted RF signal into space and receives the reflected signals. Antennas can
be parabolic dishes, phased arrays, or other configurations, depending on the application and required
directivity.
3. Receiver: Detects the RF signals reflected from objects and amplifies them for further processing. The
receiver must be highly sensitive to detect weak echoes from distant objects.
4. Duplexer: A switch that allows the same antenna to be used for both transmission and reception by
alternating between the two modes.
5. Signal Processor (synchronizer): Analyses the received signals to extract useful information, such as
range, velocity, and angle of the detected objects. Modern RADAR systems use advanced digital signal
processing techniques to enhance detection and reduce noise.
Interaction of Electromagnetic Waves with targets
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The behaviour of electromagnetic waves when they encounter objects is governed by several physical
phenomena:

1. Reflection: When an electromagnetic wave hits an object, part of the wave is reflected back towards the
source. The strength of the reflection depends on the material properties and the surface roughness of the
object.
2. Refraction: The bending of waves as they pass through different media. This can affect the path of the
waves and is particularly important in atmospheric RADAR applications.
3. Diffraction: The bending of waves around obstacles and the spreading of waves when they pass through
small openings. Diffraction can influence the detection capabilities of a RADAR system in complex
environments.
4. Scattering: The dispersion of waves in multiple directions due to irregularities on the surface of the
object or within the medium. Scattering can provide information about the size and shape of the object.
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RECEIVER NOISE
Receiver noise is the unwanted energy that interferes with a radar receiver's ability to detect a signal. If the
receiver generates a noise component into the signal, then such a kind of noise is known as receiver noise. . It
may also enter the receiver through the antenna along with the desired signal.
Also noise within the sensor is also generated by the thermal motion of the conduction electrons in the ohmic
portions of the receiver input stages. This noise known as the thermal noise. Mathematically, thermal noise
power Ni is given by Ni=KToBn
Where K is the Boltzmann's constant (1.38×10−23J/kg)
To is the absolute temperature and it is equal to 290K
Bn is the receiver band width
FIGURE OF MERIT: The ratio of input signal to noise ratio to the output signal to noise ratio is called Figure
of Merit of a Radar system.
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DOPPLER EFFECT: The apparent shift in frequency of an electromagnetic wave due to relative motion
between source and target is called Doppler Effect.

If either observer or the source is in motion, then frequency of the radiation used in Radar appears to change.
This is in analogy with doppler effect of sound. Hence it is known as Doppler Effect in radar. The apparent
frequency is known as Doppler frequency. If distance between observer and the source is increasing, the
frequency apparently decreases, whereas the frequency apparently increases if the distance between the
observer and the source is decreasing.

Derivation of expression for Doppler frequency.

Consider a continuous wave of frequency f0 emitted by the transmitting antenna of a radar system.
Let the target be present at a distance R from the radar and Vr be the relative speed of the target with respect to
radar along the line-of-sight.

The number of wavelengths in the path between radar and target is given by the ratio R /λ.
Total number of wavelengths in the two-way path (to & fro) between the Radar and target 2R/λ.

Each wavelength is associated with an angular excursion 2π.

Therefore, the total angular excursion is given by φ = n x 2π
Substituting for n we get the following.

With the movement of the target, R and φ both show variation.

Thus we can say the change in φ wrt time is the angular frequency. A change in φ with respect to time is equal
to Doppler angular frequency and is given by
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Where Vr = dR/dt is the relative velocity of target with respect to Radar.

On further simplifying we get the doppler frequency as given below.

Doppler frequency can be related with transmitter frequency fo as given below.

where C is speed of light

Substituting for λ we get the following form of doppler frequency.

The relative velocity in case of moving target is given below.

Here V is the velocity of the target and θ is the angle made by the target trajectory and the line joining
Radar and target.
For θ = 0⁰, maximum Doppler frequency is achieved.
While for θ = 90⁰, the doppler frequency is minimum i.e., 0.

NOTE: Shift in frequency is positive for a target moving towards the radar and it is negative for a target away
from the radar.

Applications of RADAR

1. Air Traffic Control

(i) They are used to provide air traffic controllers with position and other information on

aircraft flying within their area of responsibility (in airways and vicinity of airports)

(ii) High resolution radar is used at large airports to monitor aircraft and ground

vehicles on the runways, taxiways and ramps.

(iii) PAR (precision approach radar) provides an operator with high accuracy aircraft position information in
both the vertical and horizontal. The operator uses this information to guide the aircraft to a landing in bad
weather.

2. Navy (Ship Safety)

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(i) They are used in detecting other craft and avoid collision. Automatic detection and tracking equipment (also
called plot extractors) are available with these radars for collision avoidance

(ii) Shore based radars of moderate resolution are used from harbour surveillance and

as an aid to navigation

3. Space Applications

(i) Radars are used for rendezvous and docking and was used for landing on the moon

(ii) Large ground based radars are used for detection and tracking of satelli Satellite-borne radars are used for
remote sensing

4. Remote Sensing

(i) Radar astronomy - to probe the moon and planets

(ii) Used for sensing geophysical objects (the environment)

(iii) Ionospheric sounder (used to determine the best frequency to communications)

(iv) Earth resources monitoring radars measure and map sea conditions, waice cover, agricultural land use,
forest conditions, geological environmental pollution (

5. Military

(i) Surveillance in borders of the country

(ii) Navigation , Fire control and guidance of weapons