COMPARATIVE STUDY ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND FLOOD MITIGATION POTENTIAL OF PERMEABLE

PAVEMENT USING EGGSHELLS AS PARTIAL ADDITIVE FOR COARSE AGGREGATES

LOCAL LITERATURE (RRL)

Castro et al. (2023) performed the design of permeable pavement using open-graded coarse
aggregates with a surface of 63 mm and a base of 25 mm, targeting 15-20% porosity in order to reach a
stormwater infiltration capacity of 450 L/min/m². Specifications do call for at least 15 MPa compressive
strength in order to support vehicle loads while maintaining hydraulic conductivity, which is very
important for flood mitigation. The coarse aggregate gradation was optimised to attain maximum
interconnectivity of voids. This is vital for tests that investigate physical properties of permeable
pavement specimens. Constant head permeability tests were performed, which established that the
design met standards for application in urban flood control. This study establishes an engineering
framework for the assessment of the coarse aggregate void ratio, California Bearing Ratio, and
infiltration performance of permeable pavements under high rainfall conditions. This provides baseline
specifications against which physical properties such as density, percentage of porosity, and coefficient
of permeability are compared for permeable pavements. Directly, this open-graded aggregate matrix
design supports the assessment of flood mitigation potential through stormwater storage capacity and
surface runoff reduction. Engineering parameters specified match current research requirements for
coarse aggregate-based permeable pavement evaluation, with a focus on balancing structural integrity
and hydraulic performance.

Lejano et al. (2021) investigated the use of powdered eggshell as a cement replacement in concrete
hollow blocks and found that standard coarse aggregates improved the compressive strength in 28-day
cured eggshell mixes due to the strengthening of the coarse aggregate-cement interfacial transition
zone via the reaction of calcium carbonate. Water absorption reduced by 15% as the eggshell particles
refined pores within 25mm aggregate voids, with no pore clogging of permeability pathways. The
angular morphology of eggshell provided better interlocking inside the coarse aggregate skeleton, which
is very important for effective load distribution in permeable pavement without compromising hydraulic
conductivity. Scanning electron microscopy showed dense C-S-H gel formation around eggshell particles
embedded in the aggregate matrix. This study showcases the compatibility of eggshell with coarse
aggregate systems and clarifies the balanced mechanical properties of porosity, hence providing direct
support to optimize physical properties for flood-resilient pavements. Consistency among curing
regimes assures eggshell to be a reliable additive for applications in the Philippine tropical climate
whenever rapid stormwater infiltration is required.

Atienza et al. (2023) studied 5%, 10%, and 15% pulverized eggshell as cement partial
replacement in concrete hollow blocks containing 25mm coarse aggregates. Compressive strength
tested at 28 days proved that the 10% mix with eggshell produced a mean compressive strength of 17.2
MPa, exceeding the PNS 49:2010 standards for non-load bearing elements. The water absorption was
very low (4.8%), because of the capability of the CaCO₃ particles to fill the voids at the coarse aggregate
level, while the controlled porosity maintained was sufficient to allow the permeable pavement
applications. This situation improves the physical properties related to flood mitigation potential
through better bonding between aggregate and cement at the interface. Cost analysis showed this mix
saves up to 12% compared to conventional mixes. The angular form of the eggshell particles contributed
to better interconnectivity among the voids in the coarse aggregate matrix, thus meeting the dual
requirements of structural strength and capacity for infiltration of water in permeable pavements. Local
Pampanga study results may become useful and baseline data for the performance of coarse aggregates
modified by eggshell under Philippine rainfall conditions. The strength gain consistent from 7-28 days
curing periods develops a reliable early age beneficially suitable for accelerated pavement construction.

Calica (2018) from Saint Louis University assessed the suitability of using rice husk ash (RHA) as
an auxiliary in concrete. RHA has a high silica content that performs as a pozzolanic component,
contributing to the formation of C-S-H gel by reacting with calcium hydroxide produced from the
concrete’s hydration process. For the concrete, in the slump test, workability properties of fresh
concrete were compromised by the high surface area of RHA particles that increased grain refinement.
RHA increased concrete strength in the hardened state due to its ability to reduce ITZ between the
aggregates/cement paste, as it helped improve its strength. On the other hand, 10% of RHA showed the
best performance in maintaining strength, as well as in increasing concrete durability and its resistance
to permeability. RHA modified the permeability of concrete by reducing the penetration of water due to
the filling of capillary pores by the C-S-H gel. RHA can thus be recommended as an auxiliary in concrete
in Philippine construction due to high rice husk production that results in high waste production, as its
utilization reduces the consumption of cement as well as CO2 production. RHA effectively ascertains
that agro-waste can effectively prove to be a good substitute for concrete, resulting in increased
strength of concrete structures in the Philippines’ tropical climate.

FOREIGN LITERATURE (RRL)

Tosee et al. (2021) employed the usage of artificial neural networks and shuffled frog leaping
algorithms for the prediction of the compressive strength of concrete with eggshell powder, a
completely environmentally sustainable substitute for cement. The results indicate the achievement of
an average strength of 46 MPa at 7-9% eggshell powder concentrations, an increase of 55% over the
strength of ordinary Portland cement concrete. This increased strength can be attributed to the calcium
carbonate in eggshell, which contributes to the chemical reaction that increases the strength of the
structure. It applies to your research in the sense that it identifies the optimal proportions of eggshell, a
partial substitute in the aggregate, for maximum strength and maximum sustainability. In the context of
permeable pavements, this translates into the requirement of a strong coarse aggregate that can
withstand the pressure of vehicles but also has pores through which water can pass, resulting in the
reduction of floods. This method is completely cost-effective in the Philippines, a country in which
eggshell production in terms of egg waste from fast food chains and egg farms remains a major problem.
The prediction model offers more accurate results than genetic algorithms and the method of linear
regression, thereby being useful in engineering applications. This helps verify the multiple advantages of
eggshell utilization, including the recycling of bio-waste and the addition of strength and functionality
for maximum efficiency in flood control pavements.

Goh and Ramadhansyah (2022) examined the effectiveness of eggshell powder (EP) as bitumen
modifiers in Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) for highways in Malaysia. SMA is resistant to truck tires and is
also skid-resistant; however, wastes should be incorporated to lower costs and waste. The eggshell
wastes were collected from caterers, cleaned thoroughly, dried in an oven set at 105°C for 24 hours,
then ground to produce powder less than 150μ[Link] percentages of EP were incorporated in the
bitumen of SMA. Results revealed an improvement in physical and mechanical performance
characteristics like compressive strength increase, void decrease, and improvement in water resistance.
The calcium content in eggshell is like limestone; it enhances asphalt strength while utilizing 900 million
eggshell wastes monthly in Malaysia. This is relevant to your permeable pavement research since it
demonstrated that eggshell powder may act as partial additives to coarse aggregate to alter physical
properties - strong materials yet porous to facilitate drainage. A Philippines study is most suitable due to
an abundance of waste materials; therefore, it is most appropriate for flood prevention since it will
retain strength while passing rainwater through. The proper percentage of improvement in EP will help
in your research process in comparing physical properties as well as flood severity of permeable
pavement. It is cheap, eco-friendly, and an effective waste disposal method while making pavement
resistant to water.

Alqaisi (2025) conducted a study on the process of using Eggshell Powder (ESP) added with lime or
cement for the purpose of enhancing weak soils that expand and contract with the addition or removal
of water. It is considered a weak soil that can cause damage when used for the construction of roads,
foundations, among other infrastructure. He used an artificial soil composed of kaolinite, bentonite, and
sand that act as samples that represent bad soils. He discovered that the addition of 5% lime with 5%
ESP proved the most effective since the strength of the soil improved, the rate of expansion reduced,
and stability improved compared to the addition of lime. The addition of cement with 6% ESP also
proved useful but supplementation with lime works better on the soil that is very sticky. The simulation
for the computer-generated embankment in Australia showed that subsidence and the transportation of
the soil decreased. The main reason why the permeable pavement is important is that the physical
characteristics of the course aggregates improved since the permeable pavement allows the passage of
water through the pavements, hence important in the prevention of urban flooding. Another reason
why this matter became important is that the eggshell waste used acts as a waste product that is cheap,
safe, and reduces the pollution that occurs due to the use of chemical substances.

LOCAL STUDIES (RRS)

Muthusamy et al. (2023) conducted laboratory testing on crushed eggshell used as coarse
aggregate replacement in permeable pavement specimens. The compressive strength tests resulted in
16.8 MPa at 28 days, fulfilling the minimum specifications for application in urban settings. Infiltration
capacity realized up to 450 ml/min/m² by optimizing the open-graded aggregate matrix. Water
absorption provided 4.2% controlled porosity that is ideal for detention of stormwater without strength
compromise. Splitting tensile strength testing proved the suitability of light-vehicular purpose.
Aggregate angularity was evaluated and proved the contribution of the eggshell for improvement in
particle interlocking and thereby maximizing hydraulic conductivity pathways. Experimental design
included slump flow assessment, determination of void content, and permeability coefficient
measurement matching the current research protocols. Quantitative results provide empirical
benchmarks for eggshell-modified coarse aggregates across unconfined compressive strength, shear
parameters, resilient modulus, and abrasion resistance characteristics. Microscopic analysis confirmed
the strengthening of aggregate interfaces by hydration product CaCO₃ formation. Consistent mechanical
performance under simulated traffic loading coupled with sustained infiltration rates establishes the
viability of eggshells for dual-purpose permeable pavements, in pursuance of structural durability
alongside superior flood mitigation capacities through integrated surface runoff catchment and
subsurface storage functionalities that are quintessential for sustainable urban infrastructure solutions.

Tan et al. (2017) studied oven-dried eggshell powder as partial cement replacement (5%, 10%, 15%,
20% by volume) in concrete under water-cured and air-cured conditions. Watercured eggshell concrete
showed up to 51.1% compressive strength improvement and 57.8% flexural strength gain because of
eggshell powder acting to fill up the voids, thereby enhancing its impermeability with 50% reduced
water absorption. Optimum performance was observed at 15% replacement, as this achieved a balance
between workability and strength, and maintained sulfate resistance. However, at higher eggshell
content (20%), there was a loss of 27.5% compressive strength in sulfuric acid and 31.2% in sodium
sulfate due to reactions of calcium that weakened the paste bonding. The CaCO₃ particles from eggshell
improved early hydration but reduced the acid/alkali durability at higher dosages. Compressive, flexural,
and absorption tests were performed matching permeable pavement property tests. The results provide
a baseline for eggshell-modified mixtures: Voids are reduced and can support controlled porosity (4-5%)
for ideal stormwater infiltration. Strength data falls within the 15-20 MPa range and validates light-load
applications. Discussion: The eggshell micro-filling mechanism enhances the aggregate-cement
interfaces. Optimization of interlocking is necessary for coarse permeable matrices. Durability under
chemical exposure provides information for wet-dry cycle performance in Philippine pavements
susceptible to flooding. Specific gravity, permeability reduction, and modulus empirical data adhere to
current research protocols using uniform powder preparation and standard curing. Consistent strength
gains validate the viability of eggshell as a sustainable additive in dual-purpose pavements for achieving
a balance between structural integrity and enhanced hydraulic conductivity crucial to urban flood
mitigation infrastructure.

Barredo et al. (2023), investigated and found that crushed apple snail shell could be used as a
partial replacement for fine aggregate in concrete paver blocks with dimensions of 200 mm x 100 mm x
60 mm and conforming to ASTM C902 Class MX. The mix proportions and compressive strength density
followed the recommended parameters, which included cement, sand, and coarse aggregate of 1:1.5:3
and a water cement ratio of 0.4. Water absorption test resulted in an average of 5.19% in the control
sample, and values decreased to 5.12%, 4.4%, 4.3%, and stepped down to 4.24% as per increase in shell
contents. On measuring compressive strength, values in all treated samples rose to 18-18.66 MPa as
opposed to 17.66 MPa in control samples. The value of Flexural strength varied from 3.72 to 3.84 in the
20% mix. Samples satisfied TUP criteria in all respects, including aesthetics (4.72 - Very Acceptable),
durability (4.88 - Highly Acceptable), economy (4.66 - Highly Acceptable), safety (4.55 - Highly
Acceptable), and salability (4.64 - Highly Acceptable). This study clearly brings out the ability of shell
materials to be utilized as sustainable aggregate substitutes in construction.

Usman et al. (2023), at the University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, the
compressive strength of concrete using rice husk ash (RHA) with the replacement of cement and
chemical admixtures was explored. The volumetric mix design had a water-cement ratio of 0.56 with
1.5% admixture. At 10% substitution, the compressive strength of 2,353 psi (16.2 MPa) at 28 days was
attained, which showed a 9.8% increase compared with the control mix because of the pozzolanic silica
increasing the C-S-H gel. Both the 7-day and 14-day strengths showed augmentation too. The
workability of concrete was enhanced by the reduction of settings with the help of chemical admixtures.
According to the codes of the American Concrete Institute (ACI) M-15, the finally constructed mixes
were appropriate for sidewalks and floors. The experiment suggested the utilization of RHA for
secondary structures since the benefit was affordable and could be practiced within the Mindanao Rice
Provinces. This experiment demonstrated the feasibility of agricultural waste use in the production of
sustainable concrete with equal properties compared with ordinary concrete mixes.

FOREIGN STUDIES (RRS)

Ng et al. (2021) investigated the efficacy of eggshell as coarse aggregate substitute in HMA in
Malaysian roads. HMA is soft, cheap, durable, and safe for vehicles but needs new material sources for
its maintenance. They replaced gravel in asphalt mix with crushed eggshell in various percentages.
Eggshell proved to enhance the durability and water resistance of asphalt and reduced the cost due to
the excess supply of waste eggs. Based on the figures and tables, one can identify that the right ratio
increased compressive strength and reduced voids, which are similar to physical properties in
permeable pavement. This is very relevant in your study because it outlined how eggshell works as a
partial additive for coarse aggregate and can be helpful in preventing the flooding situation in the
Philippines due to lower density but having a high strength. Recycling this kind of local waste will let the
water flow while preserving the structure of the road against rain. From these results, some basis is laid
down for the possible application of eggshell in permeable pavements with high mitigation potential
from flood as it maintains porosity for drainage but without loss of strength. In relation to your title, this
proves that eggshell modifies the physical properties of aggregate for better permeability of water and
mitigation of flood in urban areas.

Nejem and Akhtar (2025) experimented with permeable asphalt pavement using RCA in 19mm,
12.5mm, and 9.5mm sizes in an effort to combat urban waterlogging problems brought about by flash
floods. They developed 9 mix types, and Mix-Type-3, with a ratio of 1:1:0.5, came out to be the best,
having given a stability of 8.88 kN minimum flow. Permeability reduced after 6 months by 16.75% and
after 12 months by 30.14%; still, it remained within the standard. This is important because the paper
demonstrates the physical properties of coarse aggregate in permeable pavement, namely high stability
and high permeability to water flow, which is directly related to your study. Although recycled concrete
was used here, the concept is very similar to eggshell as a partial additive, as it will be able to provide
enough strength and at the same time allow water to pass through for mitigating floods. In the
Philippines, where urban flooding is common, this will serve as a guide for eggshell-modified aggregate,
which is durable enough for vehicles but will not block rain. The results will provide comparative data on
physical properties, such as Marshall stability and long-term permeability, which is perfect for your title.
It is sustainable because it uses waste materials for urban water management.

Semanda (2018) conducted an experiment using waste plastic and eggshell as a replacement for
cement in making the floor tiles. He used such waste materials to reduce waste products emanating
from them while producing cheap construction material. The outcome revealed that eggshell waste up
to 50% cement replacement increased the compressive strength by more than 10 times, while plastic
waste reduced it but improved the flexibility. Water absorption increased with high amounts of plastic
and eggshell wastes, although the right mix reached a density of 2,086 kg/m³. This is important in that it
shows physical change of properties of the aggregate-high strength and density due to calcium in the
eggshell. In view of your permeable pavement, wastes generated as eggshell can work as a partial
additive to coarse aggregate to provide similar compressive strength but allowing water to pass through
for flood control. For the Philippines, with heavy household wastes generated, this is, in essence, a
practical solution for a road that does not get clogged up with water yet still strong to handle the weight
of vehicles passing through it. It thus gives a basis for a comparative study analyzing the physical
properties like the densities, strengths, and permeability of the eggshell-modified aggregate. This
addresses environmental concerns while improving the flood mitigation potential of the pavement in
flood areas. Tiles proved that eggshell does not damage the structure but strengthens the structure.

REFERENCE

Castro, K.C.M. et al. (2023). Design of permeable pavement and underdrain. IJSRED, 6(3).
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[Link]

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[Link]

Alqaisi, R. O. (2025). Engineering characteristics of expansive soils stabilised with eggshell powder and
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Barredo, J. A. P., Batuto, J. E. C., De Guzman, J. L. M., Mendoza, J. M. E., & Muñoz, R. Z. (2023).
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[Link]

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Technology.

[Link]

Ng, C. M., Jaya, R., & Awang, H. (2021). The influence of eggshell as coarse aggregate replacement in hot
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[Link]

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[Link]

Semanda, J. (2018). The effects of plastic and egg shell waste materials on the physical and strength
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