Unit 1 — SOLUTIONS

(All 2-mark and 3-mark questions from the PDF: clear, compact model answers
suitable for board exams.) �
34_CHEMISTRY_QB_05112025.pdf None
TWO-MARKS QUESTIONS — Answers
Define the term solution. Which component determines the physical state of the
binary solution?
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances at molecular level.
The solvent (the major component) determines the physical state (solid, liquid or
gas) of the binary solution.
Give an example of a solution containing:
a) gaseous solute in gaseous solvent — O₂ in N₂ (air).
b) liquid solute in gaseous solvent — water vapour in air.
c) solid solute in gaseous solvent — (rare as an ideal solution) metal vapour in
carrier gas (e.g., Na vapour in Ar in lamps).
d) gaseous solute in liquid solvent — CO₂ in water (carbonated water).
e) liquid solute in liquid solvent — ethanol in water.
f) solid solute in liquid solvent — sugar in water.
g) gaseous solute in solid solvent — H₂ in palladium (hydrogen in metal lattice).
h) liquid solute in solid solvent — mercury in amalgam (liquid in soft metal
matrix).
i) solid solute in solid solvent — brass (Cu–Zn).
Differentiate between molarity and molality. How does temperature influence them?
Molarity (M) = moles of solute per litre of solution. Temperature-dependent because
solution volume changes with T.
Molality (m) = moles of solute per kg of solvent. Temperature-independent because
mass is constant with T.
Therefore molarity changes with temperature; molality does not.
Which aqueous solution has higher concentration: 1 molar or 1 molal solution of the
same solute? Give reason.
1 M (molar) is usually the larger concentration for the same numerical value
because 1 molal means 1 mol per 1 kg solvent (solution volume > 1 L typically),
while 1 M is 1 mol per 1 L solution — comparing the same solute amount the molarity
corresponds to a smaller/ different mass of solvent; practically 1 M ≈ 1 m only if
density ~1 and solute amounts small. (Board answer: 1 M is higher for typical
aqueous cases.)
Define mole fraction. What is the value of sum of mole fractions in a three-
component system?
Mole fraction χᵢ = nᵢ / (Σ nⱼ). For a three-component system χ₁ + χ₂ + χ₃ = 1.
Define: (i) Solution (ii) Mole fraction (iii) Molarity (iv) Molality (v) Saturated
solution (vi) Unsaturated solution (vii) Dissolution (viii) Crystallisation.
Solution: homogeneous mixture of solute in solvent.
Mole fraction: ratio of moles of component to total moles.
Molarity (M): moles solute per litre of solution.
Molality (m): moles solute per kg solvent.
Saturated solution: no more solute dissolves at given T & P.
Unsaturated solution: more solute can dissolve at given T & P.
Dissolution: process of solute becoming uniformly dispersed in solvent.
Crystallisation: reverse process — solute comes out of solution as crystals.
Which concentration terms are temperature dependent? Give reason.
Molarity and percentage by volume are temperature dependent (because volumes change
with T). Molality and mole fraction are temperature independent (based on masses or
mole ratios).
18 g glucose in 500 cm³ solution. What additional data is required to compute
molality?
Need the mass of solvent (kg) — i.e., either the solution density or mass of
solvent so you can find kg of solvent.
Effect of temperature & pressure on solubility of solids in liquids?
Generally solubility of most solids increases with temperature (endothermic
dissolution) and pressure has negligible effect on solids’ solubility.
Effect of temperature & pressure on solubility of gases in liquids?
Solubility of gases decreases as temperature increases.
Solubility increases with pressure (Henry’s law).
Write Henry’s law expression relating solubility of gases to Henry’s constant.
Henry’s law (molar fraction form): p = K_H · x, or x = p / K_H, where p = partial
pressure of gas, x = mole fraction in solution, K_H = Henry’s constant.
If H₂ is more soluble than He in water at same T, which has higher K_H and why?
Since x = p/K_H, higher K_H means lower solubility at given p. So He has the higher
K_H; H₂ lower K_H because it is more soluble.
Two applications of Henry’s law.
Carbonation of beverages (CO₂ pressure and solubility).
Decompression sickness (bends) in divers — gas exsolution due to pressure drop.
Why do gases become less soluble as temperature increases?
Gas solvation is usually exothermic; raising T favours gas escaping to vapour (Le-
Chatelier), and higher molecular kinetic energy reduces gas solubility.
Define vapour pressure of a liquid. Name the law to find partial vapour pressure of
a component in solution.
Vapour pressure: pressure exerted by a liquid’s vapour in equilibrium with its
liquid at a given T. Use Raoult’s law for partial vapour pressure of a volatile
component in an ideal solution.
What happens to vapour pressure when (a) volatile solute dissolves and (b) non-
volatile solute dissolves?
(a) If solute is volatile, the vapour pressure depends on both components via
Raoult’s law (partial pressures from each component). (b) A non-volatile solute
lowers the solvent’s vapour pressure (relative lowering proportional to solute mole
fraction).
(Graph Q) — describe: vapour pressure of pure solvent vs temperature and of
solution vs temperature: the solution curve lies below the pure solvent curve;
boiling point (where vapour pressure = atm) of solution is higher.
State Raoult’s law for a binary solution (non-volatile solute in volatile solvent).
For solvent 1: p₁ = x₁ · p₁°, where p₁ is partial vapour pressure above solution,
x₁ mole fraction of solvent, p₁° vapour pressure of pure solvent.
Ideal vs non-ideal solutions?
Ideal: interactions A-A, B-B and A-B are equal; ΔH_mix = 0, ΔV_mix = 0, follows
Raoult’s law for all compositions. Example: benzene + toluene.
Non-ideal: interactions differ; shows positive or negative deviations from Raoult’s
law. Example: ethanol + water (non-ideal).
Why do solutions deviate from ideal behaviour?
Deviation arises when A-B interactions ≠ A-A or B-B: if A-B < (A-A, B-B) → positive
deviation (higher vapour pressure), if A-B > → negative deviation (lower vapour
pressure).
When 50 mL phenol + 50 mL aniline mixed — is volume = 100 mL?
No. Volume < 100 mL due to strong H-bonding (A-B attractions) causing contraction
on mixing.
Derive relation between molar mass of solute and relative lowering of vapour
pressure.
(Short result) For dilute solution with non-volatile solute:
What is an azeotropic mixture? Give example.
A mixture of liquids of fixed composition that distils without change in
composition (constant boiling). Example: ethanol–water (azeotrope at ≈95.6% ethanol
by volume).
Different types of azeotropes — explain with examples.
Minimum-boiling (constant-boiling, lower than either pure component): formed when
solution shows positive deviation (e.g., ethanol + cyclohexane type examples).
Maximum-boiling (higher than both components): formed when solution shows negative
deviation (strong A-B attraction). (Exam examples vary — the PDF lists common pairs
for students.)
Differences between minimum- and maximum-boiling azeotropes (two quick points).
Minimum-boiling: vapour pressure higher than ideal; boils at lower T. Positive
deviation.
Maximum-boiling: vapour pressure lower; boils at higher T. Negative deviation.
Which azeotropes form with negative / positive deviations?
Negative deviation → maximum-boiling azeotrope (strong A-B attractions).
Positive deviation → minimum-boiling azeotrope (weak A-B attractions).
What are colligative properties? Name one.
Properties that depend only on the number of solute particles (not their identity).
Example: elevation of boiling point, lowering of vapour pressure, depression of
freezing point, osmotic pressure.
Relation between molality and elevation in boiling point.
ΔT_b = K_b · m (for non-electrolyte; for electrolytes multiply by van ’t Hoff i).
What happens to boiling point when salt is dissolved in water? Which is greater:
0.1 M NaCl or 0.1 M BaCl₂?
Boiling point increases on adding non-volatile solute. Assuming complete
dissociation and same concentration, BaCl₂ (more particles per formula unit) gives
larger elevation (i larger).
Define osmotic pressure.
Osmotic pressure π is the pressure required to stop solvent flow through a
semipermeable membrane; for dilute solutions π = CRT (C = molar concentration).
Why is osmotic pressure method preferred for molar mass of polymers?
Because polymers at low concentration exert measurable osmotic pressures while
freezing/boiling point changes are tiny; osmotic method is most sensitive and
accurate for high M.
Van’t Hoff factor (i): possible values for association and dissociation.
Association → i < 1.
Dissociation → i > 1. (E.g., dimerisation i = 0.5 etc; dissociation of KCl ideally
i = 2.)
THREE-MARKS QUESTIONS — Answers (concise model answers)
Name the two components present in a binary solution. Which one determines the
physical state?
Components: solute (minor) and solvent (major). The solvent determines physical
state.
Match-type Q (definitions: saturated, binary, isotonic, hypotonic, solid solution,
hypertonic)
(Straightforward mapping — students should write the definitions):
Saturated: contains max solute at given T/P.
Binary: two-component solution.
Isotonic: same osmotic pressure as reference.
Hypotonic: lower osmotic pressure.
Solid solution: solution in solid phase (alloy).
Hypertonic: higher osmotic pressure.
Define mass percentage, volume percentage, ppm.
Mass % = (mass solute / mass solution) ×100.
Volume % = (volume solute / volume solution) ×100.
ppm = (mass solute / mass solution) ×10^6 (useful for trace concentrations).
Concentration term commonly used in medicine & pharmacy (definition + formula).
% (w/v) or ppm; often % (w/v) = (g solute / 100 mL solution). Medical injections
also use molarity and % (m/v); define accordingly.
Three parameters affecting gas solubility in liquid.
Pressure, temperature, and nature of gas & solvent (intermolecular interactions).
State Henry’s law, mathematical form, significance of K_H.
Henry’s law: p = K_H x. K_H indicates gas-solvent affinity — small K_H → easier
dissolution (higher solubility), large K_H → lower solubility.
Two applications of Henry’s law.
Carbonated drinks; - scuba divers & decompression sickness.
Derive vapour-pressure expression for non-volatile solute in volatile solvent.
(Short statement) For solvent: p = x₁ p₁°, where x₁ is mole fraction of solvent;
total p < p₁°.
Vapour pressure vs mole fraction diagram for ideal solution — students should draw
straight lines pA = xA pA°, pB = xB pB°, total = linear combination; indicate
intercepts pA° and pB°.
Raoult’s law + conditions for ideal behaviour
Raoult’s law: p_i = x_i p_i°, valid when A-A, B-B ≈ A-B interactions (negligible
ΔH_mix & ΔV_mix).
Ideal vs non-ideal solutions (reasons + examples)
Ideal: similar intermolecular forces, e.g., benzene + toluene.
Non-ideal: different forces; positive or negative deviation, e.g., ethanol +
acetone (positive) or chloroform + acetone (negative).
Different types of non-ideal solutions — examples
Positive deviation (A-B weaker): ethanol + acetone (example).
Negative deviation (A-B stronger): chloroform + acetone (example).
Explain positive & negative deviations with example
Positive: higher vapour pressure than Raoult (weaker A-B), leads to lower boiling
(min-boiling azeotrope possible). Example: ethanol + cyclohexane / ethanol +
acetone (textbook examples).
Negative: lower vapour pressure (stronger A-B attractions), may give max-boiling
azeotrope. Example: chloroform + acetone (H-bond formation).
Three differences between ideal and non-ideal solutions
Ideal: ΔH_mix = 0, non-ideal: ΔH_mix ≠ 0.
Ideal: ΔV_mix = 0, non-ideal: ΔV_mix ≠ 0.
Ideal follows Raoult’s law at all compositions; non-ideal shows deviations.
Three differences between positive and negative deviation solutions
Positive: p_solution > p_Raoult (higher vapour pressure); negative: p_solution <
p_Raoult.
Positive: ΔH_mix > 0; negative: ΔH_mix < 0.
Positive may form minimum-boiling azeotrope; negative may form maximum-boiling
azeotrope.
Match type of liquid–liquid solution with p_A, ΔH_mix, ΔV_mix (table) — students
should match using concept: positive deviation → ΔH_mix > 0, ΔV_mix > 0; negative →
ΔH_mix < 0, ΔV_mix < 0; ideal → ΔH_mix = 0, ΔV_mix = 0.
What are colligative properties? Which one expressed in mole fraction?
Properties depending only on particle number. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
is often expressed in terms of mole fraction: (p° − p)/p° = x₂ (solute mole
fraction, for solvent being volatile).
Show relative lowering of vapour pressure = mole fraction of solute (outline)
For dilute solution where only solvent is volatile: p = x₁ p₁°; so (p₁° − p)/p₁° =
1 − x₁ = x₂. (Derivation shown in board answers.)
Vapour pressure–temperature graph for solvent and solution: show boiling points
Graph shows solution curve below solvent curve; intersection with atmospheric
pressure occurs at higher T for solution → boiling point elevation.
Define molal elevation (K_b) and molal depression constant (K_f) with SI unit.
K_b or K_f = constant for solvent; units K·kg·mol⁻¹ (°C·kg·mol⁻¹).
Explain depression of freezing point and how molar masses are determined from it
Lowering of vapour pressure reduces chemical potential of liquid, shifting freezing
to lower T. Use ΔT_f = K_f · m → from measured ΔT_f compute m and hence molar mass
of solute.
Semi-permeable membrane — example natural & synthetic
Semi-permeable membrane allows solvent but not solute: natural example cell
membrane (selective); synthetic example cellulose acetate (reverse osmosis
membranes).
Three reasons osmotic pressure method is advantageous for polymer molar mass
Sensitive for very large molar masses.
Works at very low concentrations (minimises association/ionic effects).
Gives direct determination (π = CRT).
Isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic definitions
Isotonic: same osmotic pressure.
Hypertonic: higher osmotic pressure (causes cell shrinkage).
Hypotonic: lower osmotic pressure (causes cell swelling).
What happens to blood cells in (a) 0.9% NaCl (b) >0.9% (c) <0.9%
(a) Isotonic: no net flow.
(b) Hypertonic (greater): water flows out — cell shrinks (crenation).
(c) Hypotonic: water flows in — cell swells and may lyse.
Reverse osmosis — definition, one practical use, example SPM
Reverse osmosis: applying pressure greater than osmotic pressure to force solvent
from concentrated side to dilute side. Use: desalination (sea-water→freshwater).
Example SPM: cellulose acetate membrane.
Van’t Hoff factor — value for complete dissociation of K₂SO₄
K₂SO₄ → 2 K⁺ + SO₄²⁻ → ideally gives i = 3.
Why do electrolytes show abnormal molecular masses? Factors responsible
Abnormal masses arise from association or incomplete dissociation and interionic
attractions (ionic strength, ion pairing) — these change the effective number of
particles.