Chemistry

5.1 and 5.2

Potassium-K

Sodium-Na

Lithium-Li

Calcium-Ca

Magnesium-Mg

Beryllium-Be

Aluminum-AL

Zinc-Zn

Iron-Fe

Lead-Pb

Copper-Cu

Silver-Ag

Gold-Au

Platinum-Pt

Blast furnace process

Iron and coke(a form of carbon) is added, sir is blown is blown into the furnace to burn the coke and
then iron is displaced from it’s ore then molten iron collects at the bottom.

Key equation

Aluminum+Iron oxide = Aluminum oxide + Iron ( for railways and this is a thermite reaction)

But to start this reaction we need to use this reaction between Magnesium powder and Barium nitrate
(this is an exothermic reaction)

Iron’s melting point is 1535 degree Celsius

Blast Furnace equation: Iron oxide + Carbon = Iron + Carbon dioxide

Carbon is more reactive than iron so it displaces iron and “steals’ it’s compound
Thermite reaction meaning : The thermite reaction is a highly exothermic reaction between a metal and
a metal oxide.

Reactions of metals in the reactivity series

Potassium and sodium:

Burns brightly when heated to form an oxide and has a very vigorous reaction in cold water, the
hydroxide is formed and when it reacts with dilute acid it is very violent and dangerous (explosive)

Calcium and Magnesium:

It burns brightly in air when heated to from an oxide, it has a slow reaction in cold water to from the
hydroxide and Calcium has a violent reaction in dilute acid but Magnesium has a very subtle reaction
with only bubbles.

Zinc iron and copper:

Slow reaction when heated to form an oxide zinc and iron reacts with steam but not water to from an
oxide and copper has no reaction with steam or water, zinc iron and copper only release a few bubbles
when in contact with dilute acid.

Silver and gold

Both of them Has no reaction with steam, water or acid at all

The reaction between magnesium powder and barium nitrate gives enough energy to start the main
thermite reaction for the railways.

Blast Furnace (again)

Carbon is not a metal but it can be used to displace some metals from their compounds such as: Zinc,
iron, tin and lead

An ore is a rock that contains a metal compound, people discovered that carbon can displace iron
around 3500 years ago.

Molten-melted

Reactivity series- A list that show the reactivity of metals in order of most reactive to least reactive.
2.4 simple and giant structures

Lattice structure-3-dimensional arrangement of points, atoms or struts form a repeating ordered

pattern.

Intermolecular forces-They are the forces of attraction or repulsion between molecules rather than
within molecule basically if I have 3 pairs of 3 rice grains the “intermolecular forces” is the force holding
the 3 pairs of 3 rice together.

Macromolecules-A large molecule made out of smaller repeating units, made out of thousands of
atoms.

Ionic compound can’t conduct electricity because they are locked in a lattice however if they are in a
solution with water or when they are molten.

Covalent compounds with simple molecules does not have electrical charges so they can’t conduct
electricity.

Melting and Boiling points

Ionic substances have very high melting and boiling points because they have very strong electrostatic
forces holding them together.

Covalent substances made form simple molecules (ONLY) have low melting and boiling points because
even though the forces between the molecules together, their intermolecular forces are weak.

Layers-In graphite the carbon atoms makes bond with each other the covalent bonds within the
molecules are strong but the bonds between EACH molecule is so weak their layers are so weak, so the
layers slide over each other this makes the surface very soft (good for writing)

One example of giant covalent structure is a diamond

(Study this graph) IMF MEANS intermolecular forces

2.3

The shell with the highest energy is on the outside of the atom and it is called the outermost electron
shell.

Atoms are more stable when their highest energy level is full.

The elements in compounds are held together by chemical bonds ( in the bonds atoms can lose or gain
electrons or share electrons)

Covalent bond- A covalent bond is a bond where 2 or more atoms share electrons to become stable,
happens between 2 non-metals

Ionic bond- It’s a bond where electrons are transferred between a metal and a non-metal forming
positive and negative iron so there are strong electrostatic forces.

For this chapter I actually don’t know how to make notes, practice drawing the atoms

(Also remember these)

Hydrochloride- HCL

Hydrogen molecule- H2

Ammonia molecule- NH3

Oxygen molecule- O2

Methane Molecule- CH4

Chlorine molecule- CL2

Water molecule-H20

Nitrogen molecule- N2

Carbon dioxide molecule- CO2

2.2

Alkali metals (Group 1)

They are the elements in group 1 of the periodic table: Lithium, sodium and potassium, they are all soft
and reactive metals that have 1 electron in their outer shell which they lose easily to form + ions,
Group 7, The halogens

Halogens are the element in the group 17 of the periodic table like fluorine, bromine and iodine, they
are very reactive non-metals with 7 electrons in their outer shells, so they readily gain one electron to
form – Ions.

Group 8, The noble gases

Noble gases are the elements in the group 18 of the periodic table like helium, neon and argon. They are
unreactive stable gases because their outer electron shells are full so they don’t form bonds with other
elements.

We can see that for the group 1 alkali metals they get heavier as you go down the group, their melting
and boiling point decreases as you go down the group.

In the group 7 Halogens the get heavier as you go down the group and their melting point and melting
point increases as you go down the group, and their color get darker as you go down the group.

In the group 8, the noble gases, they get heavier as you go down the group, their melting point and
boiling point increases as you go down the group.
2.1 ( I won’t go into much detail into this because well it’s 2.1 but I will put the scientists and stuff
that discovered the atoms)

John Dalton (1803) proposed the first scientific atomic theory

J.J Thompson (1897) Discovered the electron

Ernest Rutherford (1911) Gold foil experiment, discovered the nucleus, proposed the nuclear model of
the atom.

Niels Bhor (1913) Discovered energy levels (electron shells)

James Chadwick (1932) discovered neutrons, completed the old atomic model

Ernest Rutherford’s model Vs Today’s model

Rutherford’s model had a dense, positive nucleus with electrons orbiting like planets, but it
only included protons and treated electrons in fixed paths. Today’s model includes neutrons in
the nucleus and shows electrons in clouds, emphasizing uncertainty in position, energy levels,
and quantum behavior.

Physics notes

6.1

Source- The place the produces sounds ex: vocal cords, speaker

Detector- The place that receives or detects sound

Soundwaves needs medium to transfer

Material Speed of sound m/s

Air at sea level 330
water 1500
metal 5000

A Wave can be described by 4 properties

Amplitude-Vertical distance from the center (zero) to the peak.

Wavelength-Horizontal wave top to top distance of a wave

Frequency-Number of waves past in one second (unit is Hertz Hz)

Speed of a wave

A sound wave is produced by vibration of air particles

The amplitude determines the intensity of the sound (loudness)

Loudness is measured in Decibels (dB)

Pitch-How high or low a sound appears in a musical scale, the greater the pitch the greater the
frequency

Frequency is inversely proportional to wave length so pitch is also inversely proportional to

wave length.

Sound waves can be observed by an Oscilloscope

Sounds with less 20Hz are called infrasound

Sound with more than 20k Hz are called ultrasound

Humans can’t hear ultrasound and infrasound.

6.2

The effect that is produced when 2 waves interact is called interference

Interference can only happen between the same wave types, when the 2 waves meet they
either:

Reinforce each other or Cancel each other

Reinforcing makes the sound louder (amplitude increases)

Cancelling means no sound

Whether the 2 waves reinforce or cancel the frequency stays the same

In order to reinforce the 2 waves must meet peak to peak and trough to trough .

In order to cancel the 2 waves must meet peak to trough.

Explanation of cancelling: When the 2 waves meet trough to peak, the peak is +2 and the trough is -2
when they meet, they cancel because -2+2=O.

Waves cancelling can be disrupted by sound bouncing off objects.

3.6

Evaporation is the change the change of state from liquid to gas

Evaporation-Is when the particles with the most energy of a liquid escapes, evaporation can happen at
all temperature and only happens at the surface, when evaporation happens the highest energy
particles escape so the average heat of the liquid decreases so when sweat evaporates, you are left cool.

Some liquid has different evaporation rates from each other

Evaporation vs Boiling

Evaporation is a surface process where high-energy molecules escape into gas at any temperature,
cooling the liquid and usually occurring slowly.

Boiling is a bulk process at a fixed temperature where the liquid forms bubbles rapidly throughout,
requires heat, and occurs only at its boiling point for a given pressure.

Some liquids like perfume have weaker forces between the particles because they are designed to
evaporate quickly so you can smell them.

Ethanol has a much faster evaporation speed and rate than water to when you put ethanol on your skin
you immediately feel cool than when you put water because ethanol evaporates much faster.
3.5

Conduction is the transfer of heat through a material without any movement of the material itself. Heat
flows from the hotter region to the cooler region as particles collide and vibrate, passing energy along. It
occurs mainly in solids, where particles are closely packed, allowing efficient transfer of thermal energy.

(Example: A metal rod getting hotter on the other end when you heat it with a lighter)

Convection is the transfer of heat in fluids (liquids or gases) through the movement of the fluid itself.
Warmer, less dense parts of the fluid rise while cooler, denser parts sink, creating convection currents
that continuously circulate and distribute heat throughout the fluid.

(Example: When boiling the water the is hot is lighter so it moves up and colder water moves to the
bottom and it repeats)

Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, such as infrared, without needing any
medium. It allows energy to travel through empty space, so objects can be heated even in a vacuum,
with hotter bodies emitting more radiant energy than cooler ones.

(Example: Heat travelling from the Sun to the Earth)

Colors and heat

Black absorbs light and thermal energy the best while other colors like silver or white reflect light and
heat.

3.3

Rule: Heat always moves from a hotter to a colder place.

Dissipation is the process by which energy, especially heat, spreads out or is lost from a system,
usually becoming less useful for doing work. For example, electrical energy in a resistor
dissipates as heat into the surroundings.

(Not much in this chapter)

3.3

GPE- Gravitational potential energy, energy in a object which increases the further away you
are from the surface of the Earth.

CPE: Chemical potential energy, energy stored in an object that is released during chemical
reactions, stored in chemical bonds of substances like fuel, food and batteries.

EPE: Elastic Potential energy, Energy stored when an object is stretched or compressed,
released when object goes back to normal shape
Kinetic Energy- Energy gained when an object is moving, the bigger the object the bigger the
kinetic energy

When you use transform energy not all of it is used some of it is wasted

Example: When you turn on a radio only some energy go to sound the rest go to thermal
energy.

“Energy can’t be created or destroyed it can only be transferred”

3.2

Heat vs temperature

Heat is the total energy transferred between substances due to a temperature difference,
measured in joules (J), and depends on the amount of substance. Temperature measures the
average kinetic energy of particles in a substance, indicating how hot or cold it is, and is
independent of the substance’s size or amount.

Temperature is measured in Degree Celsius

Heat energy- Thermal energy is measured in Joules (J)

Kevin Temperature

Absolute zero= -273 degree Celsius

Particles seems to stop moving around this time.

3.1

Density=Mass/Volume

Measured in g/cm3

Density of water is 1g/cm cubed if an object’s density is greater than 1g/cm cube (Water’s
density) It will sink but if it’s less than 1g/cm cubed it will float

Density is the mass of a substance per unit volume, showing how compact or concentrated its
particles are. It is usually expressed in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm³).

How to measure irregular shape’s volume

You can fill a measuring cylinder up to a certain amount, then you can drop the irregular object
into it and subtract the increased amount with the original amount.

Some materials like crude oil are less dense than water so when ships spill it, the crude oil
floats on the water

Biology (sorry for not categorizing in units)

Photosynthesis is the process plants use to create their own food with the help of chlorophyll in
their leaves. Carbon dioxide and water react together using light energy, producing glucose and
oxygen.
Chlorophyll is a green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs energy from light and helps transfer
it to the carbohydrates made by photosynthesis.
Light intensity is a measure of the quantity of light energy falling onto an object.

Photosynthesis and Respiration

Similarities:

 Both happen within cells.

 Both transform energy.
 They involve glucose, water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen.

Differences:

 Photosynthesis takes in carbon dioxide and water, while respiration takes in oxygen and
glucose.
 Photosynthesis occurs only in plants, but respiration happens in all cells.

Why photosynthesis is important:

 Gives out oxygen

 Supports the food chain

1. Reactants: Carbon dioxide and water

2. Products: Glucose and oxygen
3. Photosynthesis transfers energy from the Sun to chemical energy in glucose. When the
grasshopper eats the grass, it takes in some of the energy; when the lizard eats the
grasshopper, it gets some of that energy. Plants release oxygen into the air during
photosynthesis as a product. If there are no plants, animals cannot respire.

Chemical equation:
Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
CO₂ + H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂
6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂

Magnesium and nitrate are essential for plants because magnesium is a central component of
chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves that allows plants to capture light energy for
photosynthesis.

Without magnesium, plants cannot produce enough chlorophyll and may turn yellow. Nitrate
provides nitrogen, which is needed to make amino acids, proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids.

Nitrogen is crucial for growth, cell division, and overall plant development. In short,
magnesium helps with photosynthesis, while nitrate supports growth and protein production.

Parts of a leaf

Waxy layer stops the leaf from drying out.

The upper and lower epidermis protects the cells inside the leaf

The palisade layer contains cells that do most of the photosynthesis

The spongy layer has lots of air spaces and do a small amount of photosynthesis

Stoma (plural: stomata) Is a tiny hole in the lower epidermis, these holes let carbon dioxide
from the air get into the leaf

A vein carries water to the cells in the leaf

Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere in a specific place, including temperature,
humidity, rainfall, wind, and other conditions, it can change from hour to hour or day to day
and is usually short-term.

Climate, on the other hand, is the average weather conditions of a region over a long period,
typically 30 years or more. While weather describes what is happening now, climate describes
the typical patterns and trends of weather in a place over time.

Comet- Icy body that releases gas as it orbits the Sun

Asteroid- A rocky body smaller than a planet that orbits the Sun

Meteoroid- Rocky or metallic fragment of an asteroid, comet or a planet

Meteor- Streaks of light seen as a meteoroid heats up in the atmosphere.

Meteorite- Meteor fragment that reaches the ground

Slush- Partly melted snow

Mass extinction- Complete loss of a very large number of species

Effects of climate change

 Higher atmospheric temperature

 Melting glaciers and ice sheets
 Rising sea levels
 Mass extinctions

Xylem is a type of vascular tissue in plants responsible for transporting water and dissolved
minerals absorbed by the roots up through the stem to the leaves and other parts of the plant.
It consists of specialized cells such as tracheid and vessel elements, which are hollow and dead
at maturity to allow easy flow of water. Xylem also provides structural support, helping the
plant maintain its shape and stand upright, xylem is also called a dead cell and it has only one
way, many xylems stack on top of each other, making long tubes.

How plants are adapted to absorb water

 Long and thin extensions, thin cell walls, close contact with particles and has a
large vacuole
 Root hairs growing out of the surface of the roots provides more surface area.
 They are dead cells so they have a lot of hollow space to transport the water
Asteroid Collisions

 Asteroids colliding in space (470 million years ago): Two asteroids collided between
Earth and Mars, producing huge dust clouds that blocked sunlight, triggered an ice age,
expanded ice caps, and lowered sea levels.

 Asteroid hitting Earth (67 million years ago): An asteroid struck near Mexico, causing
massive explosions, shock waves, high temperatures, and a global tsunami. Dust in the
atmosphere blocked sunlight, reducing photosynthesis, disrupting food chains, and
cooling the Earth. This led to the extinction of dinosaurs and up to 75% of species.

 Other craters: About 175 asteroid craters are known worldwide; one in the USA is over
1 km wide and 170 m deep, formed around 50,000 years ago.

The Carbon Cycle:

 Carbon dioxide in the air is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis to produce
carbohydrates.
 Animals eat the plants, obtaining carbohydrates for energy and growth.
 When plants and animals die, decomposers break down their remains, releasing carbon
back into the soil and carbon dioxide into the air.
 Over millions of years, some carbon from dead organisms forms fossil fuels.
 When fossil fuels are burned, they release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere,
continuing the cycle.