What is remote sensing?

The acquisition of information

about an object without being
in physical contact with it.
 REMOTE SENSING

"Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about

the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it.
This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted
energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that
information."
Three Essential Things for Remote Sensing

Object
Sensor
to be
Electro Magnetic Radiation sensed
Why has remote sensing been
developed?
• Remote sensing has a very long history, dating
back to the end of the 19th century, when
cameras were firs t made ai r borne, us ing
balloons and kites.

• The advent of aircraft further enhanced the

opportunities to take photographs from the air. It
was realized that the airborne perspective gave
a completely different view to that which was
available from the ground.
 Benefits of remote sensing

• Remote sensing has many advantages over ground-

based survey in that large tracts of land can be
surveyed at any one time, and areas of land (or
sea) that are otherwise inaccessible can be
monitored.

• The advent of satellite technology and multispectral

sensors has further enhanced this capability, with the
ability to capture images of very large areas of land
i n one pass, and by c oll ec t ing dat a about an
environment that would normally not be visible to the
human eye.
• A remote sensor collects the total radiation
reaching the sensor - that emanating from the
ground as well as that due to the atmospheric
effects.
• The part of the signal emanating from the
atmosphere is called path radiance, and that
coming from the ground is called ground
radiance.
• The path radiance tends to mask the ground
signal and acts as a background noise.
 Remote Sensing System &
Processes
The process involves an interaction between
incident
(A) radiation
Energy Source or Illuminationand the targets of interest.
(B) Radiation and the Atmosphere
(C) Interaction with the Target
(D) Recording of Energy by the Sensor
(E) Transmission, Reception, and Processing
(F) Interpretation and Analysis
(G) Application
 The Process
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - the first requirement for remote sensing is
to have an energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy
to the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as the energy travels from its source to the
target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes
through. This interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels
from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target
through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties
of both the target and the radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered
by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with
the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the
sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and
processing station where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or
digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually
and/or digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was
illuminated.
7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved
when we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery
about the target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or
assist in solving a particular problem.
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including gamma and x-rays) to the
longer wavelengths (including microwaves and broadcast radio waves).

There are several regions of the EM spectrum which are useful for remote
sensing.
 Ultraviolet Spectrum (UV)
UV portion of the spectrum has
the shortest wavelengths which
are practical for remote sensing.

This radiation is just beyond the

vi ol et porti o n o f t h e v i s i b l e
wavelengths, hence its name.

Some Earth surface materials,

primarily rocks and minerals,
fluoresce or emit visible light
when illuminated by UV
radiation.
Visible Spectrum

The light which our eyes - our "remote

sensors" - can detect is part of the
visible spectrum.

longer

higher frequency
 Visible Spectrum
• It is important to recognize how small the visible
portion is relative to the rest of the spectrum. There is
a lot of radiation around us which is "invisible" to our
eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing
instruments and used to our advantage.

• The visible wavelengths cover a range from

approximately 0.4 to 0.7 µm. The longest visible
wavelength is red and the shortest is violet.
• This is the only portion of the spectrum we can
associate with the concept of colors.
Infrared Spectrum (IR)
IR region covers the wavelength
range from approximately 0.7
µm to 100 µm - more than 100
times as wide as the visible
portion!

The IR can be divided into two

categories based on their
radiation properties - the
reflected IR, and the emitted or
thermal IR.
Infrared Spectrum
• Radiation in the reflected IR region is used for
remote sensing purposes in ways very similar to
radiation in the visible portion.
• The reflected IR covers wavelengths from
approximately 0.7 µm to 3.0 µm.

• The thermal IR region is quite different than the

visible and reflected IR portions, as this energy is
essentially the radiation that is emitted from the
Earth's surface in the form of heat.

• The thermal IR covers wavelengths from

approximately 3.0 µm to 100 µm.
 Microwave Spectrum
The portion of the spectrum of more
recent interest to remote sensing is the
microwave region from about 1 mm
to 1 m.

This covers the longest wavelengths

used for remote sensing.

The shorter wavelengths have

properties si mi l ar t o t he t her mal
infrared region while the longer
wavelengths approach the
wavelengths used for radio broadcast.
 Microwave Spectrum
The portion of the spectrum of
more recent interest to remote
sensing is the microwave region
from about 1 mm to 1 m.

This covers the longest

wavelengths us ed f or r emot e
sensing.

The shorter wavelengths have

properties similar to the thermal
infrared region while the longer
wavelengths approach the
wavelengths used for radio
broadcast.
 SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE OF
VEGETATION,SOIL AND WATER
Key to feature identification from space imagery depends on the
characteristic changes in the properties of the EM spectrum
reflected/emitted from the target surface – referred ‘signature’
The graphical representation of the spectral response of an object over
different wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum is termed as spectral
reflectance curve.
SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE OF SOIL

Molecular water absorptions at 1.4

and 1.9 microns
 SENSORS

Camera Scanner
PLATFORM CHARACTERISTICS
 USUAL PLATFORMS
• Aircraft
– Helicopters
– Microlites
– Low altitude aircrafts
– High altitude aircraft

• Satellites
– Polar Orbiting satellites
– Geostationary satellites
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
PLATFORMS
AIRCRAFT /Airborne Platform
– Defence permission needed
– Imagery can be obtained at the time and place of our
choice
– Expensive
– Usually used for cameras
– Narrow limited view
– Platform less stable
– Large scales
– Flexible repeat coverage
– High spatial resolution
– Less cost effective
Satellite/Spaceborne platform
– Global coverage
– Defence permission not needed
– Wide, synoptic view
– Very stable platform
– Limited repeat coverage
– Highly cost effective
ORBIT
The path followed by a satellite

Two types of Orbits are

1) Geostationary Orbits
2) Near Polar Orbits
GEOSTATIONARY ORBITS
§At altitudes of approximately 36,000 kms
§Revolve at speeds which match the rotation of the Earth so that they
seem stationary, relative to the Earth's surface
§This allows the satellites to observe and collect information
continuously over specific areas
 NEAR-POLAR ORBITS

• The inclination of the orbit relative

to polar axis.

§ Some of these satellites’ orbits are

also sun-synchronous. This
means that they cover each area of
the world at a constant local time of
day called local sun time.
Source: [Link]
• IMAGING SENSORS
– Sensors which provide output to create
an image
– Eg : LISS I,LISS II, LISS III etc.

• NON IMAGING SENSORS

• Sensors which provide numerical output
with respect to the quantum of radiation
• Eg: Radiometer, Scatterometer etc.
 ACTIVE SENSORS
• Active sensors, on the other hand, provide their
own energy source for illumination.

• The sensor emits radiation which is directed

toward the target to be investigated. Eg: RADAR
 PASSIVE SENSORS

§ Remote sensing systems which measure energy

that is naturally available are called passive
sensors.
§ Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy
when the naturally occurring energy is available.
COMMON SENSORS USED IN
REMOTE SENSING

• Cameras
• Scanners
• Radar
CHARACTERISTICS OF CAMERA

• Passive Remote Sensing

• Very high resolution imagery
• Stereo-capability
• Films - black & white, Colour, Colour
Infrared
• Central perspective
• Well-defined geometry.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SCANNER

• Output in digital form

• Highly amenable for computer processing
• No consumables
• Flexible w.r.t. radiometric and spectral
resolutions
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR
• All weather capability, day and night
observing capability
• Sensitive to moisture
• Soil depth penetration to certain extent
•Photographic Cameras – Conventional Camera System.

•Return Beam Videocon – Image formed over semi transparent film as

charge or potential. Similar to Television Cameras.

•Thermal System – Measures the emitted radiation from an object.

•Optical Mechanical Scanners – Employs filters and Detector

combinations.

•RADAR and Microwave Sensors (SLAR/SAR)

SCANNERS
 FOUR TYPES OF RESOLUTION

Spatial Resolution
Spectral Resolution
Radiometric Resolution
Temporal Resolution
 Spatial Resolution

• Refers to the size of the smallest possible feature that

can be sensed

IRS 1C/D – 5.8m (PAN)

IKONOS – 1m (PAN)
RESOURCESAT – 5.8m
MULTISPECTRAL
Information content vs resolution. `A’ is from a scene from IRS Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM).
The area in the small square marked (≈ 4km x 4km) is shown in various resolutions from B to
G. The feature showing airport runway is not at all discernable at 360 and 188 meter
resolution; can be barely identified at 72 meters and the details one can discern increases as
the resolution improves. At 5.8m even marking on the runway can be identified.
Jensen, 2000
Jensen, 2000
 Spectral Resolution

• Ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength intervals.

• The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower is the
wavelength range for a particular channel or band.
 Temporal Resolution

• Time interval between two successive

visits of the satellite for the same place.

• Spectral characteristics of features may

change over time and these changes can
be detected by collecting and comparing
multi-temporal imagery.
Thermal remote sensing
Microwave remote sensing
The amount and nature of backscattered
electromagnetic radiation can provide information about
the size, shape, configuration and electrical properties,
etc of the surfaces and objects irradiated.

Advantages over remote sensing in the other regions of EMR.

1. Time independent.
2. Weather independent.
3. Sensitive to moisture in soil, vegetation and snow.
4. Enhancement of surface roughness / relief.
5. Penetration of soil and vegetation cover.
6. Ability to collect data which are far away from flight path.
The microwave region of the spectrum is quite large, relative to the
visible and infrared, and there are several wavelength ranges or bands
commonly used which given code letters during World War II, and
remain to this day.
Ka, K, and Ku bands: very short wavelengths used in early airborne
radar systems but uncommon today.
X-band: used extensively on airborne systems for military
reconnaissance and terrain mapping.
C-band: common on many airborne research systems (CCRS Convair-
580 and NASA AirSAR) and spaceborne systems (including ERS-1
and 2 and RADARSAT).
S-band: used on board the Russian ALMAZ satellite.
L-band: used onboard American SEASAT and Japanese JERS-1
satellites and NASA airborne system.
P-band: longest radar wavelengths, used on NASA experimental
airborne research system.
Passive microwave sensor detects the naturally
emitted microwave energy within its field of view. This
emitted energy is related to the temperature and
moisture properties of the emitting object or surface.
Passive microwave sensors are typically radiometers or
scanners and operate in much the same manner as
systems discussed previously except that an antenna is
used to detect and record the microwave energy .

Active microwave sensors provide their own source of

microwave radiation to illuminate the target. Active
microwave sensors are generally divided into two
distinct categories: imaging and non-imaging.

The most common form of imaging active microwave

sensors is RADAR.
RADAR is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging,
which essentially characterizes the function and operation
of a radar sensor.

Non-imaging microwave sensors include altimeters and

scatterometers.
Radiometers
Radiometers are basically high sensitive receivers operating in different
frequencies depending on the application. Radiometers receive the natural
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the target in the desired frequency and
process it to provide the geophysical information. The data is used for studying
the soil moisture and snow cover on land, salinity and surface wind speeds
in oceans and water vapour and liquid water content in atmosphere.
Radiometers also can be used for generating imageries of the target/terrain of
interest.
Scatterometer is also a Side Looking Radar, but configured to measure the
Radar cross section/scattering co-efficient of the target accurately rather than
mapping it. Ground based scatterometers are used to collect the Radar cross
section of various targets of interest as a function of the sensor and target
parameters. From spaceborne platforms, the scatterometer is mainly used to
measure the ocean surface wind speed and direction. This can generate
this wind data over a wide area (500 - 800 Km.) with good accuracy.
Altimeter
It measures the ocean surface topography, significant wave height and
surface wind speed. It can also be configured to measure the terrain
evaluation on land. It operates in nadir looking mode.
Rain mapping Radar
It is meant for measuring the rainfall in the tropical region. The Radar
transmits coherent high energy pulses at microwave frequencies and receives
the back-scattered power from rain drop and processes to provide information
on the rain rate, vertical distribution etc. It can measure rainfall rate upto 0.5
mm/hr.
Side Looking Radar
Real Aperture Radars are less complex. But the resolution is directly linked to
the physical length of the antenna and distance to the target. This is overcome
by the Synthetic Aperture Radar, though a complex system, using signal
processing techniques.