Unit 2 Overview

• Nervous & Muscular system

• Nerve conduct all stimuli as electrical impulses while
muscle are effectors innervated by nerves to carry out
effects
• Nervous
– tissues, membrane potential, synapse
– CNS
– PNS & ANS
– Sensory organs
• Muscles
– Tissues, organization
– Contraction, NMJ
 11
Nervous Tissue

Lecture Presentation by
Lori Garrett

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Key Concepts
• Nervous System
• Nerve cells
• Membrane potential
– Graded potential vs action potential
• Synapse
– EPSP vs IPSP
Figure 27.1-3

SENSORY INPUT

Sensory INTEGRATION
Sensory receptor
neuron

Interneuron
MOTOR OUTPUT

Motor
neuron Brain and spinal cord
Effector cells
Peripheral nervous Central nervous
system (PNS) system (CNS)
 Nervous System
• Master control and communication system
• Has three overlapping functions
1. Sensory receptors monitor changes inside
and outside the body
• Change – a stimulus
• Gathered information – sensory input
2. Processes and interprets sensory input
• Makes decisions – integration
3. Dictates a response by activating effector
organs
• Response – motor output
 Basic Divisions of the Nervous System
• Central nervous system (CNS)
– Brain and spinal cord
– Integrating and command center
– Nuclei
• Clusters of neuronal cell bodies
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– Nerves extending from brain and
spinal cord linking all regions of the
body to the CNS
• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves
– Ganglia
• Clusters of neuronal cell bodies
Sensory Input and Motor Output
• Sensory (afferent) input
– Picked up by sensor receptors
– PNS →CNS
• Motor (efferent) output
– CNS→PNS
– Innervate muscles and glands
Neural organization

Figure 15.1
 Afferent division
▪ The afferent division carries information from
▪ Somatic sensory receptors
▪ Skeletal muscles, joints, and the skin (general)
▪ Hearing, equilibrium, vision (special)
▪ Visceral sensory receptors
▪ Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
(general)
▪ Taste, smell (special)
 Efferent Division
▪ Somatic nervous system (SNS)
▪ Regulate ___________muscle contractions
▪ May be voluntary or involuntary
▪ Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
▪ Regulate visceral effectors (Smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands)
▪ Involuntary
1. Sympathetic division
2. Parasympathetic division
 Nervous Tissue
• Two main cell types
1. Neurons – __________, able to
transmit electrical signals
2. Support cells (neuroglial cells in
CNS)
• Nonexcitable
• Surround and wrap neurons
• provide structural and metabolic
support and help maintain
homeostasis of the brain's
extracellular fluid.
 Structure of a nerve
Input Zone cell
Dendrites
Cell body
Nucleus
Trigger Zone
Axon hillock
Initial segment

Conducting Zone
Axon (1mm - 1m long)

Output Zone
Axon terminals
Arrows indicate the
direction in which nerve
signals are conveyed.

Fig. 4-9a, p. 79
 Structure of a neuron
• Dendrites
– Receptive sites for receiving signals from other
neurons & transmit electrical signals toward the
cell body
• Cell body
• Axons
– Axon ________—origin of axon from cell body
– Initial segment—where action potential is
initiated
– Has axon collaterals (branches) along the
length
– Ends as multiple branches or axon terminals
Structural Classification of Neurons

• Multipolar – > two processes

– Numerous dendrites and one axon
• Bipolar –two processes
– Rare neurons
– Found in some special sensory organs (eye)
• Unipolar (pseudounipolar) – 1 short,
single process
– Start as bipolar neurons during development
Neurons Classified by Function

Sensory neuron is ___-polar;

Interneuron & motor neuron is __-polar.
Figure 12.11
 Central
Peripheral
nervous system
nervous system
(spinal cord)

Cell
Axon body
terminals Afferent neuron

Central Peripheral axon

axon (afferent fiber) Receptor

Interneuron

Axon
terminals
Efferent neuron*
Effector organ
(muscle or gland)
Cell Axon
body (efferent fiber)
* Efferent autonomic nerve pathways consist of a two-neuron chain between
the CNS and the effector organ. Fig. 5-2, p. 111
 Functional Classification of Neurons
• According to the direction the
nerve impulse travels
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons
2. Motor (efferent) neurons
3. Interneurons (association
neurons)
 Sensory (afferent) neurons
• Transmit impulses toward the CNS
– Virtually all are unipolar neurons
– Cell bodies in ganglia outside the CNS
• Short, single process divides into
– The central process – runs centrally into the
CNS
– The peripheral process – extends peripherally
to the receptors
 Motor (efferent) neurons
• Carry impulses away from the CNS to
effector organs
• Most motor neurons are multipolar
• Cell bodies are within the CNS
• Form junctions with effector cells
Interneurons (association neurons)
• – most are ___________
– Lie between motor and sensory neurons
– Confined to the CNS
• An impaired neuron can
Regeneration
regenerate if the cell body is of a Cut Neuron
intact.
• When an axon in the PNS is
cut, the severed part
degenerates, and a
regeneration tube is formed by
Schwann cells.
1) Growth factors are
released that stimulate
growth of axon sprouts
within the tube
2) New axon eventually
connects to the undamaged
axon or the effector
 Neuroglial
• Glial cells have branching processes and a central
cell body; outnumber neurons 10 to 1
• Make up half the mass of the brain
• Can divide throughout life (therefore can give rise to
brain tumor)
• Six types of supporting cells
– Four in the CNS (Astrocytes, microglial,
ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes)
– Two in the PNS (Schwann cells, satellite cells)
• Provide supportive functions for neurons
• Cover non-synaptic regions of the neurons
Neuroglia in the CNS

Figure 12.12a
 Astrocytes
• the most abundant glial cell type
– Sense when neurons release glutamate
– Extract blood sugar from capillaries for
energy
– Take up and release ions in order to control
environment around neurons
– Involved in synapse formation in developing
neural tissue
– Produce molecules necessary for neuronal
growth (BDTF)
– Propagate calcium signals involved with
memory
 Microglia
• The smallest and the
least abundant glial
cell
– Phagocytes – the
macrophages
of the CNS
– Engulf invading
microorganisms and
dead neurons
– Derive from blood
cells called
monocytes
Figure 12.12b
 Neuroglia in the CNS

Ependymal cells
•Line the central cavity of the spinal cord and
brain
•Bear cilia – help circulate the cerebrospinal
fluid
Figure 12.12c, d
 Neuroglia in the CNS
• Oligodendrocytes – have few branches
• Wrap their cell processes around axons in
CNS
–Produce myelin sheaths
 Neuroglia in the PNS
• Satellite cells – surround neuron cell
bodies within ganglia
• Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) –
surround axons in the PNS
– Form myelin sheath around axons of the PNS

Figure 12.13
 Myelin Sheaths
• Is made of myelin (a
lipoprotein) that surrounds
thicker axons at segments
– Prevent leakage of
electrical current & thus
_________ the speed of
impulse conduction
• Nodes of Ranvier – gaps
along axon that is
unmyelinated
Saltatory Conductance (Propagation)
 Speed of impulse conduction
• Depends on the ___________ of the axon
– The thicker one conducts impulse faster than
the thinner one
• Depends on the ____________ of the axon
– The myelinated neuron conducts impulse
faster than the unmyelinated neuron.
– Saltatory conductance: nerve impulses (action
potential) jumps from node to node along the
entire length of the axon
 Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
• Schwann cells (neurolemmacytes) wrap
in concentric layers around the axon
• Neurilemma
– Material external to myelin layers

Figure 12.15a
 Myelin Sheaths in the CNS
• Oligodendrocytes form the myelin
sheaths in the CNS
– Have multiple processes
– Coil around several different axons

Figure 12.15b
 ALS & MS
1. ALS (Amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (aka Lou Gehrig's disease)
• Causes the death of neurons controlling voluntary
muscles, resulting in muscle atrophy
2. MS (Multiple sclerosis)
• Demyelination slow down
communication between brain and
spinal cord. Symptoms include visual
loss, muscle numbness & weakness,
memory problem.
 Check Your Understanding
The type of axon that conducts impulses
most slowly is
• A) thick, myelinated.
• B) thick, unmyelinated.
• C) thin, myelinated.
• D) thin, unmyelinated.
Which of these 2 membranes have
potential (differences in charges)?
 Membrane potential
• Membrane potential refers to the _________
in charges on each side of the plasma
membrane.
• The membrane potential depends on two
factors:
1. ______________ of each ion (K+, Na+, Cl-,
other anions like proteins, nucleic acids)
2. _______________ of the membrane to its
ions.
 Concentration of ions across plasma membrane

• Normal cells have

– 150mM K+ inside and 5mM K+ outside.
– 12mM Na+ inside and 145mM Na+ outside.
 Equilibrium potential
• Each ion has its own equilibrium potential
(if the membrane is only permeable to that
certain ion, what would the voltage of the
membrane potential?)
• Equilibrium potential for K (EK) is _____mv
• Equilibrium potential for Na (ENa) is
_____mv
Resting membrane potential
 Resting membrane potential
• When a cell is not sending electrical signals
(impulses), it’s called the resting membrane
potential.
• This potential difference can be measured
as a voltage.
• The resting membrane potential in neurons
is _________ mv.
• The resting membrane potential is
determined primarily by the K+ concentration
gradient (because the membrane is more
permeable to _____) and therefore the
membrane potential is closer to EK
 Maintenance of Resting Membrane
potential
• There are leaky channels for
Na+ and K+ go down their own
concentration gradient, which
may cancel out the membrane
potential

• Cells use Na-K ________ to

maintain the resting membrane
potential,
Negative inside because
The inside of the cell is more
negative compared to the outside
due to 3 factors:
1. The plasma membrane is more to K+ (non-
gated channels for K+ to leave cell)
2. __________ distribution of ions across the
membrane (more negative ions inside) caused
by
– Na-K pump pumps ____ Na+ outside, and
__K+ inward, therefore more + ions outside
– Negatively charged molecules trapped
inside the cell (proteins, ATP, nucleic acids)
 Nerve and muscle tissues are
excitable
• Can undergo rapid changes in their
membrane potentials.
• Can change their resting potentials into
electrical signals, known as action
potentials
– Nerve: receive, process, initiate & transmit
– Muscle: contraction
 Upward deflection = Decrease in potential
Downward deflection = Increase in potential

Repolarization
Hyperpolarization

Resting potential
Depolarization

Fig. 4-1, p. 72
4 Possible membrane electrical
states in nerve and muscle cells
• Polarization - any state, positive or negative,
other than 0 mV.
• Depolarization - change makes the
membrane potential ______ negative than
the resting potential.
• Repolarization - The membrane returns to
resting potential (returns to negative) after
depolarization.
• Hyperpolarization - makes the membrane
more polarized, ________ negative inside.
Membrane potential is related
to ion permeability

• Polarization
– Selective permeability to Na+, K+, A-
• Depolarization
– Flow of positive ions into the ICF (e.g. Na+)
• Repolarization
– Flow of positive ions into the ECF (e.g. K+)
• Hyperpolarization
– Flow of positive ions into the ECF (e.g. K+)
 Check your understanding
• If the resting membrane potential of a
nerve cell is -70 mv and in response to a
stimulus, the membrane potential
becomes +30mv, what has taken place?
A. Depolarization
B. Repolarization
C. Hyperpolarization
 Check your understanding
• If the resting membrane potential of a
nerve cell is -70 mv and in response to a
stimulus, the membrane potential
becomes -100 mv, what has taken place?
A. Depolarization
B. Repolarization
C. Hyperpolarization
Fig. 4-2, p. 87
 Decremental spread of graded
Change in
membrane potential
potential in
mV relative Initial
to resting active
potential— area
i.e., magnitude
of electrical
signal

Resting
potential

Few mm Few mm

Distance

Fig. 4-4, p. 74
 When membrane potential becomes action
potential (1)
1. Resting membrane potential is the potential of
an undisturbed cell; starting point (Inside slightly
negative compared to outside)
2. Graded potential = temporary,
localized change in resting
potential, produced by a
typical stimulus
• Decreases with __________
from stimulus (decremental)
When membrane potential becomes action
potential (2)
3. Action potential = electrical event that
involves one location on the axon membrane
but then spreads along axon surface toward
axon terminals
• Triggered by sufficiently large graded potential
Table 4-1
 = _________ potential = After hyperpolarization

_____equilibrium
potential

Changes in
membrane
repolarization potential during
an action
potential

______________
potential
___________
potential
Triggering event ____ equilibrium
potential

Fig. 4-5, p. 75
 Action Potential
• When a cell (nerve & muscle cells) is
excited, potential is reversed
• Spreads without decrement (spreads through the
entire length of cell membrane)
• ________ duration (1 msec in nerve cell)
• Unlike graded potential, AP is all-or-none
– AP (Spikes) fire only if depolarization exceeds
the threshold potential (~ -50 and -55 mv)
– Spike:
• Depolarization: ___flux of Na+ (-70mv→+30
mv)
• Repolarization: __fflux of K+ (+30 mv→-70mv)
Threshold potential

Resting potential

Fig. 4-8, p. 78
 Check your understanding
• At rest, which ion is higher in
concentration outside the cell?
A) Chlorine B) Potassium
C) Sodium D) Calcium
Label 2 & 3
 Conductance of AP
Input Zone in a nerve cell
Dendrites (have receptors for neurotransmitters)
and Cell body
where incoming signals from other neurons are
Nucleus
received: graded potential
Trigger Zone
Axon hillock (highest number of Na+ gates,
where the threshold is the lowest for AP)
Where AP is initiated (Once AP is initiated,
goes along the rest of the axon)

Conducting Zone
Axon (1mm - 1m long)
Conducts AP to undiminishing fashion

Output Zone
Axon terminals
Arrows indicate the Releases a
direction in which nerve neurotransmitter that
signals are conveyed. influences other cells

Fig. 4-9a, p. 79
 Adjacent inactive area into
which depolarization is
Active area at peak spreading; will soon reach Remainder of axon
of action potential threshold still at resting potential

Local current flow that

depolarizes adjacent inactive
area from resting to threshold

Direction of propagation of action potential

Fig. 4-10a, p. 81
 Adjacent area that
was brought to New adjacent inactive
threshold by local area into which
Previous active area current flow; now depolarization is
returned to resting active at peak of spreading; will soon Remainder of axon
potential action potential reach threshold still at resting potential

Fig. 4-10b, p. 81
 Characteristics of AP in neurons
• Conduction is all-or-none
– Once it reaches threshold, it will spread along
every patch of membrane (propagation)
– __________ conduction in unmyelinated
neuron (local current flow; slower)
– Saltatory conduction in myelinated neuron
(jump from node to node)
• New AP cannot be initiated during ___________
period
– To ensure one-way travel of an AP
– To limits the frequency of AP.
Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel

Extracellular
fluid (ECF)

Plasma
membrane

Inactivation Intracellular
gate Activation fluid (ICF)
gate Rapid Slow
opening closing
triggered triggered
at threshold at threshold

Closed but capable Closed and not capable

Open (activated)
of opening of opening (inactivated)
At resting potential From threshold to peak potential From peak to resting potential
(–70 mV) (–50 mV to +30 mV) (+30 mV to –70 mV)

Fig. 4-6a, p. 76
Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel

Extracellular
fluid (ECF)

Plasma
membrane

Intracellular
fluid (ICF) Delayed
opening
triggered
at threshold

Closed Open
At resting potential; delayed From peak potential through
opening triggered at threshold; after hyperpolarization
remains closed to peak potential (+30 mV to –80 mV)
(–70 mV to +30 mV)

Fig. 4-6b, p. 76
 Two ion channels (Na, K) undergo
conformational changes controls AP

• Na channels
– Activation gate: respond to trigger rapidly
→PNa+ (depolarization)
– Inactivation gate: respond to trigger slowly
→PNa+ (dep→repolarization)
• K channels
– Gate respond to trigger slowly → PK+
(dep→repolarization)
Status of ion gates during AP
• Threshold →Depolarization :
– Both activation gate and inactivation
gate of Na channel open →rapid influx of
Na (-70 mV to +30 mV)
• Peak of spike→repolarization:
– Inactivation gate of Na channel
close→stop influx of Na
– K channel open gate→outflux of K (→-
70mv)
• Concentration gradient disrupted by AP is
restored by Na-K pump
 Generation of an action
potential

© 2018 Pearson
Education, Inc.
Absolute Relative
refractory refractory
period period

Action potential

Na+ permeability

K+ permeability

Fig. 4-12, p. 83
 Refractory Period
• After an AP there is a refractory period when the
neuron cannot become excited
again
• Absolute refractory period
– Membrane is completely
Irresponsive to any further
stimulation (Na gates
are not in their resting conformation)
• _________ refractory period
– Membrane may be responsive to further
stimulation depending on its strength
– K+ gates partially closed; Na gates are capable of
opening
 AP : All-or-None Law
• Once threshold has been reached, an AP will
happen.
• The size of the stimulus will not affect the _____ of
the action potential; it will always reach +30mV.
• The size of the stimulus will not affect AP _______.
 Stimulus affects frequency not amplitude of
the AP
• A stronger stimulus will make action potentials
occur more frequently. (frequency modulated)
• A stronger stimulus may also activate more
neurons in a nerve. This is called recruitment.
Table 4-1
 Graded Potential vs Action Potential
• Graded potential:
– Membrane voltage change due to electrical
charge going through the membrane
– Size reflects stimulus size (_________ modulated)
– Produced by inflow of sodium ions
– Duration is directly proportional to the duration of
the triggering event
– Potential change is decremental
• As voltage spreads, some electric charge leaks
back to ICF → voltage becomes smaller &
slower
– May or may not spread to become AP
– e.g. postsynaptic , receptor, end-plate,
pacemaker, and slow-wave
Graded Potential vs Action Potential
• Action potential
– When a cell (nerve & muscle cells) is excited,
potential is reversed
– _______________
– Magnitude is always the same
– Vary only in terms of frequency
– Spreads without decrement (spreads through
the entire length of cell membrane)
– Same duration (1 msec in nerve cell)
 Check your understanding
In order to signal a stronger stimulus, action
potentials become
A) higher in amplitude only.
B) more frequent only.
C) longer-lasting only.
D) higher in amplitude and more frequent.
E) higher in amplitude and longer-lasting.
 Synapse
• A synapse is the functional connection between
either a neuron and another neuron (in CNS), or
a neuron and a muscle or gland (in PNS).
 Different types of synapse
• If one neuron is signaling another neuron, the first is
called the presynaptic neuron, and the second is
called the postsynaptic neuron.
– A presynaptic neuron can signal the dendrite, cell
body, or axon of a second neuron.
– There are axodendritic, axosomatic, and
axoaxonic synapses.
– Most synapses are axodendritic and are 1
direction
 Electrical synapses
• Presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes joined
by gap junctions
• Changes in membrane potential of one cell
produce local currents in adjacent cell, as if
sharing common membrane
• Rare
• No variability in
response of
postsynaptic cell
 Chemical synapses
• Most abundant type of synapse
– All synapses between neurons and other
types of cells
– Most synapses between neurons
• Rely on neurotransmitter release
• Synapses that release acetylcholine (ACh) are
categorized as cholinergic synapses (most
common type)
Events at a cholinergic synapse
• Step 1. Axon terminal depolarized by
arriving action potential
 Events at a cholinergic synapse
(continued)
• Step 2. Depolarization opens ___________-
gated calcium channels
– Calcium ions rush into axon terminal
– Triggers synaptic vesicles to release ACh
(exocytosis) into synaptic cleft
– Calcium ions are
quickly removed,
ending release
of ACh
 Events at a cholinergic synapse
(continued)
• Step 3. ACh diffuses across synaptic cleft; binds to
____________ gated Na+ channel receptors on
postsynaptic membrane
– More ACh = more channels open
– More Na+ enters = greater depolarization
– If threshold met, initiates action potential
 Events at a cholinergic synapse
(continued)
• Step 4. Effects on the postsynaptic membrane
are temporary
– Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in synaptic cleft
breaks down bound ACh within 20 msec
– Other ACh molecules diffuse away from
binding sites
 Events at a cholinergic synapse

© 2018 Pearson
Education, Inc.
 Voltage-gated
vs Chemically-gated
channels
1. Voltage-gated channels
• triggered by AP, e.g. Na
channels in axon hillock, Ca
channels in axon terminals
• Blocked by local anesthetic

2. Chemically-gated channels
– Triggered by the binding of chemicals (e.g. ACh) to
receptors on the gated ion channel e.g. dendrites
of postsynaptic neuron or motor end plate (in
muscle
– Blocked by botulinum toxin (Botox)
 Summary of
Neurotransmitter
Action

Post-synaptic potentials:
EPSP or IPSP (graded
potential)
 Summary of
Neurotransmitter
Action

Post-synaptic potentials:
EPSP or IPSP (graded
potential)
 Postsynaptic potentials
• These are graded potentials in postsynaptic
membrane in response to a neurotransmitter
• Two types
1. Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
2. Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
 EPSP & IPSP
• EPSP are graded depolarization
• Shifts membrane potential ________ to
threshold (more likely to have AP)

• IPSP are graded hyperpolarization

• Shifts membrane potential farther away from
threshold (less likely to have AP)
 Summation
• = integration of effects of graded potentials
– Collective effects of both EPSPs and IPSPs
Example: Arrival of two different neurotransmitters
at same time opens two different sets of ion
channels
• Net effect may be no change in membrane
potential
 Types of summation
• Single neuron may receive information from
thousands of synapses (excitatory/inhibitory)
• Axon hillock integrates all stimuli; determines rate
of AP generation at initial segment
• Single EPSPs will not cause an action potential,
but they can combine through summation
• Two types
1. Temporal summation
2. Spatial summation
Temporal summation (tempus, time)
– ​When ______ synapse is stimulated repeatedly
• Under maximum stimulation, AP can reach
synapse each millisecond
• Each new AP causes release of more ACh
into the synaptic cleft
• More ACh = more depolarization, possibly to
threshold
 Spatial summation
• _________ synapses active at same time
• Degree of depolarization depends on:
1. Number of active excitatory synapses
2. Their distance from initial segment
• AP is generated if membrane reaches threshold
© 2018 Pearson
Education, Inc.
 Synaptic Plasticity
• Strength of synaptic transmission can be
modified by ______________ of use (Synaptic
facilitation or Synaptic depression)
• Long term potentiation (LTP)
– Synaptic learning showing that synapses that
are first stimulated at higher frequency will
subsequently exhibited increased excitability
– Glutamate & its NMDA receptors in the
hippocampus are associated with LTP
– Causes for LTP are found to be similar to that
for long-term depression.
Voltage-gated
channels
Axon terminal
 Check Your Understanding
• Blocking the voltage-gated sodium
channels will
A. inhibits depolarization
B. Inhibits hyperpolarization
C. Stimulates depolarization
D. Stimulates hyperpolarization
 Check Your Understanding
• Which ion is important in stimulating
exocytosis of neurotransmitter-containing
vesicles at the synapsis?
A. Sodium
B. Chlorine
C. Potassium
D. Calcium