CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Reading Comprehension
1. Definition of Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension is characterized in several ways by experts.
According to Snow (2002: 9), the process of obtaining and developing
meaning while engaging with written language is known as reading
comprehension. As a result, readers must first comprehend what they
already know before reading new material. Good readers can quickly
grasp the main ideas from a stream of information without becoming
bogged down in the specifics. According to Jennings et al. (2014: 7),
comprehending a reading entails understanding the terminology,
detecting the connections between words and concepts, organizing ideas,
figuring out the authors' intentions, making judgments, and evaluating.
Richards & Rodgers (2014: 289) assert that readers read a text to
comprehend its contents (comprehension). Moreover, Harmer (2010: 64)
asserts that comprehension of a text's language at the word, phrase, and
overall text levels is necessary for reading. Furthermore, according to
Brown (2007: 89), in order to understand texts, readers need a set of
conceptual frameworks, or their knowledge of the outside world. It can
be assumed that readers make an effort to understand the material they
are reading. They accomplish this by engaging with the text itself and
drawing on past knowledge of the subject. After they are able to
comprehend the individual words and sentences that make up the text,
they will be able to comprehend the entire text.

2. Strategies in Reading Comprehension

When being assessed, reading comprehension may involve several
strategies to achieve an understanding of a text. Brown & Abeywickrama
(2010: 127) propose taxonomy of strategies for reading comprehension
as follows:
a. Identifying the purpose of reading;
b. Applying spelling rules and conventions for bottom-up decoding;
c. Using lexical analysis such as prefix, root, suffix, to determine the
meaning;
d. Using picture, chart, marginal note to understand the information;
e. Guessing meaning from the context; and
f. Using discourse markers.
The majority of reading strategies are partial because they focus on
particular elements (like perceptual or cognitive), phases (like beginning
or skilled reading), or modalities (oral or silent reading). They do not
even make an effort to take into account every aspect of reading. There
has not been a single strategy that can be deemed the best. According to
Richards & Rodgers (2014: 205), bottom-up and top-down methods are
two that are frequently used in reading comprehension.
a. Bottom-up Strategy
This bottom-up approach takes into account perceptual acuity,
sound, and the capacity to identify a progression of texts, words,
spelling patterns, and other linguistic elements (Richards & Rodgers,
2014: 205). By connecting the meaning of the text's smallest to its
biggest components, readers attempt to comprehend it. Bottom-up
reading does not cover the entire reading process, which is required
for the best understanding, according to Brown (2003: 132). Bottom-
up reading, to put it simply, is a method of understanding letters,
sounds, words, and structures until the entire text has been translated
in order to decode the meaning of a reading text. It is frequently used
in the elementary reading process.
Based on the experts above, bottom-up reading strategy involves
analyzing the linguistics units. When using this strategy, readers
attempt to comprehend the text by building textual meaning from the

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 smallest to the greatest units, then changing prior information and
making predictions towards the text.
b. Top-down Strategy
A top-down reading strategy is defined as a reading technique or
a guessing game in psycholinguistics (Bintang Nadea et al., 2021: 4).
The role of schemata, or prior experiences and background
knowledge, in understanding a literary work is emphasized in top-
down reading strategies. Ngabut (2015: 2) explains the reader must
have knowledge, understanding, and language abilities to interpret
the meaning of the text in top-down reading strategies. Reading can
be learned utilizing the top-down technique by processing larger
pieces of language while focusing on the reader's knowledge. As a
result, the reader incorporates his prior knowledge into the reading.
This strategy differs from bottom-up in that it requires a reader to
generate meaning from a text (Richards & Rodgers, 2014: 206).
In short, the strategy focuses on reading comprehension that is
attained by utilizing only the minimal amount of information from
the visual, syntactic, and semantic cue systems. Depending on the
reader's proficiency in English, other clues may be used. As opposed
to reading as a bottom-up translation approach, experts felt that
advanced readers move directly from print to meaning without first
reading to voice (Richards & Rodgers, 2014: 206).

1. Aspects of Reading Comprehension

There are four components of reading suggested by Jacobson (2007:
1), namely alphabetic, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. This
author demonstrates how readers decode words (alphabetic) present in a
book while they read and correlate the words with meanings stored in
their memory to explain the relationship between these elements
(vocabulary). The next step for readers is to absorb the phrases and
sentences making up the text quickly enough (fluency) in order to

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increase comprehension as they read. As a result, it is clear that one
component affects the other components while trying to interpret a text.
As stated by Klingner et al. (2007: 3), teaching reading
comprehension is a multi-step, extremely difficult process that involves
communication between the teacher and the pupils. In order to assess the
comprehension, Klingner et al. (2007: 14) state that reading
comprehension evaluation serves four functions in order to gauge
comprehension: Students' comprehension levels will be compared in
order to (a) compare comprehension levels, (b) determine whether
students have met the prerequisites for their grade level, (c) inform
instruction by identifying when students comprehend what they read and
how effectively they use comprehension strategies, and (d) identify
possible reasons why students may be struggling. Brown &
Abeywickrama (2010: 228) classifies four different types of reading
assessments: perceptive reading, selective reading, interactive reading,
and extensive reading. Perceptive reading involves paying attention to
language components, while selective reading focuses on grammar, and
extensive reading involves reading lengthy texts like journals, articles,
essays, and other types of texts.
Based on the concepts above, the researcher uses multiple choice
tests as a tool of data collection in order to determine students’ reading
comprehension ability. For this aim, the aspects of reading
comprehension that would be assessed are based on a study conducted by
Cain et al. (2004) categorized into 5 aspects.
a. Identifying Important Information in the Text
One aspect of reading comprehension appropriate for junior
high school is locating factual information. The reader must be able
to distinguish between factual and specific information when
reading, including person, location, event, and time details.

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b. Finding Out Main Idea of a Text
Finding the main idea is a crucial step in the reading process
since it allows the reader to understand what the text is discussing.
The first paragraph is not the only place where the primary concept
may be found; the middle paragraph and the final paragraph as well.
Therefore, it must be clear to see and pinpoint the location of the
primary concept inside the text.
c. Deducing the Meaning of Unfamiliar Lexical Items
The students' capacity to compare the text with other types of
text depends on their comprehension of the content. Additionally, it
demands students to understand word and phrase meanings, the text's
communicative goal, its general structure, and the grammatical
devices that are employed.
d. Understanding References
The term is used to prevent using the same word or phrase
repeatedly. It can refer back to a term after using it rather than
repeating it. Understanding the reading material will be aided by the
reader's ability to identify and recognize the reference. Typically,
references include words like she, he, it, this, etc.
e. Making Inferences
Making inferences is a crucial part of reading comprehension.
Reading between the lines is a necessary ability for inference.
According to Klingner et al. (2007: 36), they segment into attentions,
derive logical conclusions, and make precise predictions. Once the
reader has finished reading the entire material, he or she should be
able to draw conclusions from it using their own words and
reasoning.
Based on the explanation above, the researcher has adopted these
aspects into three different multiple-choice tests as a tool of data
collection in order to determine students’ reading comprehension ability.
These three tests have given at the preliminary stage, cycle 1 and 2 to the

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 samples of this research. After the conduct of this research, the aspects of
reading comprehension would be described in the result to also provide
the effects of Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) on the aspects
of reading comprehension ability.

B. Recount Text
Recount text is the most common type of text that we encounter in our
daily lives. The major purpose of this text is to recount a historical
occurrence. This is the basic style utilized in many narrative books or story-
telling materials, as well as non-fiction, where it is typically employed to
create factual representations of current or historical events (Habiburrohim,
2017: 12). Recount, according to Knapp & Watkins (2005: 224: 224), is a text
that illustrates about events that occurred in the past in a chronological order.
The text objective is to inform the readers about what occurred in the past and
when it occurred.
Generic Structure of Recount Text
In making a recount text, there is an important point that should be
crucially considered and it is the generic structure of recount text.
According to Knapp & Watkins (2005: 225) , a recount text has three
main parts as its generic structure.
a. Orientation
The orientation gives the audience all of the background
information they need to understand the text. Use the words to
ensure that the orientation is detailed and complete (who, what,
when, where, and why). The text passage should explain what
happened, who or what was involved, when and where the events
occurred, and why they occurred. The author's ability to choose the
quantity of detail required will be aided by an understanding of the
audience and goal.

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b. Sequence of Events
The writer describes the events in chronological order in a series
of events. It starts with the first event and progresses through the
second to the last. The totality of occurrences is determined by the
author's imagination. Events should be carefully chosen to enhance
the audience's grasp of the subject. readers should be prepared to
discard events and details that are irrelevant or useless. In most
circumstances, a recount is more than just a "shopping list" of every
possible detail. Readers should be encouraged to choose only those
events that are significant and may be developed upon by adding
precise details.
c. Reorientation or Resolution
The final section of the recount sums up the story by
summarizing outcomes or results, assessing the topic's importance,
or providing personal commentary or opinion. It can also project into
the future by making predictions about what will happen next.
However, re-orientation does not act as the complete of a recount
and it is optional for authors to provide it at the end of a recount
passage.
Table 2.1. Example of Recount Text and its Generic Structure
Text Generic Structure
Once there was an old man. His wife had died
and he had married again. The man had one Orientation
son and his stepmother had a daughter.
One day the man and his son went collecting
fire-wood. They saw a golden tree. They went
slowly over to the tree. When they got closer
Sequence of Events
to the tree, they heard a voice coming from
the tree. This is what the tree said. Go north
for one and a half miles. There you will find a

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 fairy wearing a gold ring. You must take the
ring and make a wish.
They dun just as the fairy had said and they Reorientation or
lived happy every after. Resolution

C. Directed Reading Thinking Activity in Classroom

The Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) is a reading
comprehension approach that helps language learners enhance their reading
comprehension. DRTA is used in each of the three stages of reading, i.e., pre-
reading, during reading, and post-reading (Snow, 2002: 40). It can be
implemented both in small groups and individually. In DRTA, predictions
play an important role to provide students with reading purposes in mind. The
objective of reading should be clear to the reader. It agrees with Celik (2019:
3), who claims that reading should have goals to direct the intelligence of
readers. In order to inspire students to create an appropriate prediction, a
teacher should ask them questions to activate their past knowledge and use
clues such as the title and illustrations from the text (Januarty & Azizah
Nima, 2018: 3).
DRTA serves a variety of functions. The DRTA, according to Androveda
et al. (2015: 2), is a technique for developing independent readers since
readers are equipped with the capacity to define reading goals, examine
reading material based on these goals, and make decisions based on the
information in the text. Furthermore, according to Jennings et al. (2014: 44),
the DRTA aids students in being aware of reading methods, comprehending
the reading process, and developing prediction skills. It agrees with Nerim
(2020: 2), who claims that when students try to guess any word during
reading exercises, they are unsure of its exact meaning.
Based on the foregoing explanation, it can be inferred that the goal of
DRTA is to encourage students to use reading methods, elicit prior
knowledge relevant to the text's topic, define a purpose for reading, and
monitor their understanding while reading. These actions can help students

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 become independent readers in the future. In terms of the DRTA approach,
Nerim (2020: 3) claims that during comprehension activities such as reading,
students should be able to make predictions ahead of time and then prove or
alter their predictions about story events.
Procedure of Directed Reading Thinking Activity
The application of Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA)
includes three essential processes, namely predicting, reading, and
proving/disproving the predictions made by the students. According to
Buehl (2020: 9), during the implementation of DRTA, both the teacher
and the students have a role to play. Students are in charge of
determining their reading objectives, making predictions, justifying those
predictions, reading the text, and checking or changing their predictions
depending on the text's information. Meanwhile, the role of a teacher is
to choose a text, break it into sections that make sense, and stimulate
discussion. The steps of DRTA are described in more detail in the table
below.
Table 2.2. Procedure of Directed Reading Thinking Activity
No. Procedure
Before Reading: Predicting
1 The teacher surveys the text with the students to look for clues about the
content of the text. The clues can be the title, key words, illustrations and
other explanatory materials.
2 The teacher helps the students make a prediction about what they think the
text will be about.
3 The teacher asks the students to write their predictions down. Students may
write individual predictions, write with a partner or contribute to an oral
discussion creating a list of the class’s predictions.
4 The teacher helps the students establish a purpose for reading by directing
them to read the text to determine whether it proves or disproves their
predictions
While Reading: Reading
1 The teacher has the students read the text, silently or aloud, individually or in

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 groups, to verify their predictions.
2 The teacher asks the students to place a check mark under the appropriate
category (ranging from accurate, less accurate, to inaccurate) on the
Prediction Verification Checklist as they read the text.
After Reading: Proving/Disproving the Predictions
1 The students have a discussion by comparing their predictions and the actual
content of the text.
2 The teacher asks the students to analyze their checklist and determine how
well they predicted the content of the text.
3 The teacher verifies that the students have learned the DR-TA strategy by
having them answer the questions: What is the name of the strategy you
learned? How does the strategy help you understand what you read? What
should you do before you read? While you read? After you read?

D. Relevant Previous Studies

DRTA is one of the strategies that should be considered to help students
improve their reading comprehension (Directed Reading Thinking Activities).
This strategy motivates students to become better readers and improves their
critical thinking skills, which can help them to realize the need of learning
English in order to improve their reading comprehension (Lusyani, 2019).
The DRTA strategy was created to encourage students to make sense of the
text while they are reading. Students are prompted to read the text, then stop
to argue or discuss the material, and then continue to generate a new one for
further reading during the DRTA stage (El-Koumy, 2006). Furthermore,
DRTA, particularly the generation of predictions, encourages students to
focus their awareness on the passage and encourages them to read for
comprehension. This section reviews a number of related studies from
some researchers:
1. Renn (2012) conducted research about The Effect of the Directed
Reading Thinking Activity on Second Grade Reading Comprehension.
She compared Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) to Directed
Reading Approach in this study (DRA). The result of her analysis

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 demonstrates that the Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) group's mean
score is much higher than the Directed Reading Approach (DRA) group's
mean score. In terms of improving reading comprehension, it appears
that Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) is more beneficial than
Directed Reading Approach (DRA).
2. Al Odwan (2012) conducted a study about The Effect of Directed
Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) through Cooperative Learning on
English Secondary School Students' Reading Comprehension in Jordan.
Despite the fact that Odwan adjusted the DRTA with cooperative
learning, there are some aspects of the Directed Reading Thinking
Activity (DRTA) that are relevant to reading comprehension. As a result
of his research, he claims that students' improved reading comprehension
can be described to their growing capacity to comprehend the content
utilizing DRTA. This is because students create goals, make predictions,
read silently, then check their predictions during the exercise.
The effectiveness of DRTA strategy has been investigated in some
studies on distinctive contexts and scopes (Faisal & Lova, 2018; Ginting,
2019; Kurniaman et al., 2021; Lubis, 2018). In more details, Ginting
(2019) defined DRTA as the three steps of comprehension: questioning,
predicting, and confirming or rejecting, with the goal of assisting
students with reading. Furthermore, Lubis (2018) revealed that the goal
of DRTA was to teach pupils to be thoughtful and critical readers.
Meanwhile, Kurniaman et al. (2021) found out that the DRTA activity
can help students understand the material by breaking it down into
segments and predicting the next one. However, determining the
efficiency of the DRTA strategy, particularly in terms of how it can
improve the student's reading comprehension particularly in recount text,
proved intriguing. For this reason, the efficiency of the DRTA technique
in reading comprehension became the study's main focus.

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