CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Insects are small sized hexapod invertebrates easily recognized by the possession
of a well-defined three body regions namely; the head, thorax and abdomen. They
have six jointed appendages, one or two or no pairs of wing, a pair of antenna,
exoskeleton and a pair of compound eyes (Werner, 2005).
Insects are the most diverse animals, having more species than all other living
animals, accounting for about two-third of all living animals on earth filling many
niches in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Chapman, 2006). Many insects act
as vectors of different diseases in their effort to find food and finding a
suitable host for the continuation of their life cycle, thus, causing great damage,
annoyance and deadly diseases.
According to wikepedia, the free encyclopedia, a pest is "a plant or animal
detrimental to humans or human concerns (as agriculture or livestock production)",
alternative meanings include organisms that cause nuisance and epidemic disease
associated with high mortality (specifically: plague). In its
broadest sense, a pest is a competitor of humanity. In the past, the term might
have been used for detrimental animals only, thus for example, causing
confusion where the generic term "pesticide" meant "insecticide" to some.

Therefore, a pest can be defined as any living organism which is invasive or

prolific, detrimental, troublesome, noxious, destructive to either plants or
animals is regarded as pest (Speiser, 2000). Often animals are considered pests
when they cause damage to agriculture by feeding on crops and parasitizing
livestock. An animal could also be a pest when it causes damage to a wild ecosystem
or carries germs within human habitats such as those animals that vector human
diseases like mosquitoes (Stange, 2004).
Therefore, the agricultural significance of pests on any crop plant is the damage
they cause that reduces the quality or quantity (or both of crop yield. The first
sign of the presence of a pest is the appearance of the crop which may exhibit
particular types of pest's damage symptoms like pre-matured leaf fall (Hein,2003).
There are two main types of damage caused by insect pests which is
related to their mode of feeding, the first is the damage due to biting and
chewing of plant materials, the group of insects concerned with this damage are
mainly the Orthopterans, larvae of Lepidopteran, adult and many larvae of
Coleoptera and other Dipterans larvae. The second is the damage due to sucking
of plant sap from phloem or xylem systems or from general tissues of foliage, roots
or fruits, Hemiptera and Thysanoptera are the main group of insects concerned with
this damage (Sorensen, 1995).
Many insects are considered pests by humans. Insects commonly regarded as
pests include those that are parasitic (e.g. lice, bed bugs), transmit (mosquitoes,
flies), damage structures (termites), or destroy agricultural goods (locusts,
weevils). Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control, as in
research for companies to produce insecticides, but increasingly rely on methods of
biological pest control, or biocontrol. Biocontrol uses one organism to reduce the
population density of another organism - the pest - and is considered a key element
of integrated pest management (Davidson, 2006).
Insectivorous insects, or insects which feed on other insects, are beneficial to
humans because they eat insects that could cause damage to agriculture and human
structures. For example, aphids feed on crops and cause problems for farmers, but
ladybugs feed on aphids, and can be used as a means to get significantly reduce
pest aphid populations. While birds are perhaps more visible predators of insects,
insects themselves account for the vast majority of insect consumption. Ants also
help control animal populations by consuming
small vertebrates (Dossey and Aaron, 2010). Without predators to keep them in
check, insects can undergo almost unstoppable population explosions (Gullan et al.,
2005).
The economic impact of insects is not only by the market value of product they
destroy and cause of damage they inflict, but also the money and resources
expanded on prevention and control of insect pest outbreaks. Although, dollar
values for these losses are nearly impossible to calculate especially when they
affect human health and welfare, therefore economist generally agree insects
consume or destroy around 10% of gross national product at large.
Another negative effect of pests is on agriculture in particular and the economy in
general. Pests have caused losses in virtually an unlimited number of crops, a
swarm of pests could ruin a whole season's worth of planting and careful
cultivation, leading to financial loss. It comes as no surprise that pesticides and
pest control management strategies are given much importance by farmers.
However, this negative impact goes beyond agriculture.
1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Considering the tremendous economic losses insect pests cause with a direct
impact on agricultural food production by chewing the leaves of crop plants,
sucking out plant juices, boring within the roots, stems or leaves and spreading
plant pathogens that leads to plant destruction or death. It is therefore important
to survey insect pests because routine use of control measures without taking into
consideration of the pest density is economically wasteful.
However, there is no record on the survey of insect pests around Kofar Kware
irrigated farmlands in Sokoto state, therefore this study has been chosen to carry
out, which may provide a baseline data for further.
1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
It is a known fact that different species of insects exert different injury and
damage to both plants, man and his property, understanding the nature and
importance of the relationship between insects and plants would provide a useful
information towards harnessing the economic importance. Therefore, Kofar Kware
being an area where alot of farming activities takes place the study would also
stimulate further research unto the area with a view of understanding
the biology, ecology of the insect species, their effects on plants and possible
control measures.
1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATION
This research as titled Insect pests of agricultural crops around irrigated
farmlands Kofar Kware Sokoto state is restricted to the insect pests around and
within the farms, any accidental occurrence of some unrelated species from the
above sampling site was not considered.
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The aim of the study is to observe, collect and identify different insect species
encountered at the Kofar Kware Fadama Area irrigation
The specific objective is to;
• Observe and collect the insect pests in the study
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Insects, belongs to the kingdom animalia, phylum Arthropoda and class insecta.
The name Arthropod is derived from• two greek words "arthron"-joint and
"podos"-leg, together means jointed legs or appendages such as ants, scorpions
(Wernner, 2005).
The life cycle of insects varies but most hatches from egg, some species of insects
undergoes complete metamorphosis with four stages; egg-larva-pupa
and adult. In this stage the egg being immotile hatches to larvae (the pest stage
in many species) that molts to pupa which later develops into adult. Also, some
species shows incomplete metamorphosis with three stages involved from egg
to nymp and adults.
Most insects we encounter in our daily life activities are either harmful or
beneficial. Out of the 800,000 to 1,000,000 species of insects that have been so
far described, not more than 1,000 species are regarded as serious pests and
about 10,000 are regarded as sporadic or occasional pests affecting us in one
way or the other (John, 2006).
Another negative effect of pests is on agriculture in particular and the economy
in Pests have caused losses in virtually an unlimited number of crops. A swarm of
pests. could ruin a whole season's worth of planting and careful cultivation,
leading to financial loss. It comes as no surprise that pesticides and pest control
management strategies are given much importance by farmers. However, this negative
impact goes beyond agriculture:
Pests also affect plants and your lawn. Habitats that provide alternative hosts or
preys may also harbor pests, thereby increasing the vulnerability of that habitat
and the other organisms that live in it. Pests also destroy the habitat of other
organisms as well as natural resources, leading to reduction in water quality,
increase in soil erosion and degradation of land, and destruction of native plants
that provide food and shelter to native species or those endemic to the place.
Another way that these vermin can harm the ecology is through their
competition with native animals for food and shelter. To a certain extent, pests
can even poison native animals and pass on diseases, leading to the decline of
certain animal and plant species.
The worst ecological scenario that can be imagined with regards to pests is the
decreased number of native species, the degradation of their natural habitats,
food, and their extinction. However, it is impossible to measure the full impact of
insects and other arthropods on human health and welfare. The organisms
have the capacity to inflict injury, diseases, discomfort and distress, they also
be a direct cause of illness, pain and sufferings through bites and stings and
destruction of plants both in the farms and in the store (John, 2004).
In Nigeria, many researches have carried out the work to identify insect pests of
many plants in different areas. In 1995 a survey was conducted by the National
Horticultural Research Institute (NHRI) in some major producing areas of tomato
(Bauchi, Kano, Kaduna) aimed at identifying the major insect pests of the plant in
different areas.
Also, in Kano state a survey of some insect pests was conducted in three
selected areas along Jakara River where many different species of insect pests were
collected and identified, the insect pests recovered during the survey include;
grasshoppers, aphids, bugs and thrips as the major insect pests affecting
plants in the areas (Imam et al., 2010).
2.1 RELATIONSHIP OF INSECTS TO HUMANS
2.1.1 AS PESTS
Many insects are considered pests by humans. Insects commonly regarded as
pests include those that are parasitic (e.g. lice, bed bugs), transmit diseases
(mosquitoes, flies), damage structures (termites), or destroy agricultural goods
(locusts, weevils). Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest
control, as in research for companies to produce insecticides, but increasingly
rely on methods of biological pest control, or biocontrol. Biocontrol uses one
organism to reduce the population density of another organism - the pest - and is
considered a key element of integrated pest management (Bale et al., 2008).
Despite the large amount of effort focused at controlling insects, human
attempts to kill pests with insecticides can backfire. If used carelessly, the
poison can kill all kinds of organisms in the area, including insects' natural
predators, such as birds, mice and other insectivores. The effects of DDT's use
exemplify how some insecticides can threaten wildlife beyond intended
populations of pest insects (Nakamaru et al., 2003).
2.1.2 BENEFICIAL ROLE
Although pest insects attract the most attention, many insects are beneficial to
the environment and to humans. Some insects, like wasps, bees, butterflies and
ants, pollinate flowering plants. Pollination is a mutualistic relationship between
plants and insects. As insects gather nectar from different plants of the same
species, they also spread pollen from plants on which they have previously fed.
This greatly increases plants' ability to cross-pollinate, which maintains and
possibly even improves their evolutionary fitness. This ultimately affects
humans since ensuring healthy crops is critical to agriculture. As well as
pollination ants. help with seed distribution of plants. This helps to spread
plants which increases plant diversity. This leads to an overall better
environment. A serious environmental problem is the decline of populations of
pollinator insects, and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily
for pollination management in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field,
orchard or greenhouse at bloom time. Another solution, as shown in Delaware, has
been to raise native plants to help support native pollinators like L. vierecki
(Davidson et al., 1979) Insects also produce useful substances such as honey,
wax, lacquer and silk. Honey bees have been cultured by humans for thousands
of years for honey, although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more
significant for beekeepers. The silkworm has greatly affected human history, as
silk-driven trade established relationships between China and the rest of the
world.
Insects are also used in medicine, for example fly larvae (maggot) were
formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop gangrene, as they would only
consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals
Dossey and Aaron, 2010). Recently insects have also gained attention as potential
sources of drugs and other medicinal substances Dossey and Aaron,
2010). Also adult insects, such as crickets and insect larvae of various kinds, are
also commonly used as fishing bait (Dossey and Aaron,2010)
[Link] IN RESEARCH
Insect plays important roles in biological research. For example, because of its
small size, short generation time and high fecundity, the common fruit fly
Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism for studies in the genetics of higher
eukaryotes. D. melanogaster has been an essential part of studies into principles
like genetic linkage, interactions between genes, chromosomal genetics,
development, behavior and evolution. Because genetic systems are
well conserved among eukaryotes, understanding basic cellular processes like
DNA replication or transcription in fruit flies can help to understand those
processes in other eukaryotes, including humans (Pierce, 2006). The genome of
D. melanogaster was sequenced in 2000, reflecting the organism's important role in
biological research. It was found that 70% of the fly genome is similar to
the human genome, supporting the evolution theory (Adams et al., 2000).
[Link] AS FOOD
In some cultures, insects, especially deep-fried cicadas, are considered to be
delicacies, while in other places they form part of the normal diet. Insects have a
high protein content for their mass, and some authors suggest their potential as a
major source of protein in human nutrition (Gullan et al., 2005). Since it is
impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects
are inadvertently present in many foods, especially grains. Due to the abundance
of insects, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) considers that not in
Nigeria but to the world may have to, in the future, regard the prospects of eating
insects as a food staple. Insects are noted for their nutrients, having a high
content of protein, minerals and fats and are eaten by one-third of the global
population (Maierbrugger and Arno, 2013).
[Link] AS SOIL DECOMPOSERS
Insect plays an important role in the breakdown of organic matter, facilitating its
return to the soil as nutrients. The insects, feeds on dead plants and animals
materials serving as decomposers that improve fertility of the soil, termites feed
on dead wood and ants feeds on plant debris thereby enhancing the growth and
yield of the plants (Werner, 2005).
2.2 HARMFUL EFFECTS
The damaging effect of insect could either be direct or indirect effect. The direct
effect varies depending on the mouth part possessed by the insects which may either
be biting and chewing or piercing and sucking mouth. Biting and chewing
insects reduce the amount of leave tissues available for photosynthesis thereby
hindering the growth of plants. They also feed on roots and stems hence,
disrupting the absorption of nutrients from the soil. They attack flowers and
fruits reducing seed production and seed germination, thus, destroying the apical
point (growing point )of The piercing and sucking insects cause loss of plants
vigour due to removal of excessive quantity of sap, in extreme cases, the plant
dies. They damage floral organs and reduce seed production. They are also capable
of injecting toxins into plant body providing entrance for pathogens, fungal and
bacteria. The plants affected with these insect shows many abnormalities such as
pre-matured leaf fall, leaf curl and deformations.
However, the situation that creates pest problem could occur through large scale
agriculture, planting highly nutritious crop varieties, planting of yield crops
leading to higher fecundity of pests, shorter life cycle, faster development rate
and higher pest population. Pesticide application may also create problems such
as pollution of soil and environment and pest resistance to pesticides. Therefore,
Pest insects can have adverse and damaging impacts on agricultural production
and market access, the natural environment, and our lifestyle. Pest insects may
cause problems by damaging crops and food production, parasitizing livestock,
or being a nuisance and health hazard to humans.
Another negative effect of pests is on agriculture in particular and the economy
in general. Pests have caused losses in virtually an unlimited number of crops. A
swarm of pests could ruin a whole season's worth of planting and careful
cultivation, leading to financial loss. It comes as no surprise that pesticides and
pest control management strategies are given much importance by farmers.
However, this negative impact goes beyond agriculture. Pests also affect and your
lawn. Habitats that provide alternative hosts or preys may also harbor pests,
thereby increasing the vulnerability of that habitat and the other organisms that
live in it.

CHAPTER THREE
* 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
* 3.1 STUDY AREA
Kofar Kware Fadama Area, Sokoto, is one of the areas with a major vegetable
production site within the metropolis with a total land area of about 12 hectares
cultivated by over 300 farmers. Most of the farmers use wastewater from the main
drainage which receives wastewater from the surrounding communities
and only few others use boreholes water for irrigation. Kofar Kware is an area
located along Dandima Round About close to River Rima Sokoto State at altitude 803,
latitude 13 and longitude, it is in the northern most point jointed by the Goulbi
de maradi river in niger republic. It runs southwest and joins river Sokoto in
Sokoto and continues south to the Niger River (Tosin, 2009).
River Rima is surrounded by Fadama wetlands. The direction of flow of the
river is east to west with vegetation consisting of grasses and trees which are the
dominant species in the area. Thus, Kofar Kware Fadama area is busy with
agricultural activities specifically irrigation which is the routine activities of
the
people living in the area. Vegetables and grains are predominantly cultivated in
the area which may be due to the type of the soil in the area.
3.2 SAMPLE SITE
Three (3) farmlands were selected randomly in the study area, in which Maize,
Spinach, and Roselle were planted.
3.3 COLLECTION OF INSECTS
Collection of insects was made on weekly basis as follows:
i
ii.
Week I - on 8th
August, 2021 at 7:30-8:30am
Week II - on 15 August, 2023 at 6:30am-7:30am
111. Week II- on 22" August, 2023-at 8:30am-9:30am

Two methods of trapping the insects was employed;

Hand picking or hand capture where wingless and slow moving insects seen on
the plants and ground were carefully captured. In the case of flying insects, the
insects were pursued with the insect net (sweeping net) swinging at them,
immediately, a catch was made, the mouth of the net was folded so as to prevent the
insects from escaping. The insects were then carefully removed from the net
and emptied inside the collection cage then transferred into Killing Jar
containing a piece of cotton wool soaked in chloroform to kill the insects. The
killed insects were then removed from the killing Jar and preserved into
specimen bottles containing 70% alcohol with formalin, the large insects were
stretched on the stretching board, dried and preserved in insect collection box,
which were later identified.
3.4 IDENTIFICATION OF THE SAMPLES
Morphological identification of the insects was carried out using hand lens,
binocular microscope and utilizing identification keys (Zim and Cottam, 2000).
They were then placed into their respective shelves at the Entomology Laboratory
Department of Zoology,Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto.