Introduction to Chemistry and Atomic Structure

1. Definition and Branches of Chemistry

History
Throughout human history, people have tried to convert matter into more useful forms. Our Stone
Age ancestors chipped pieces of flint into useful tools and carved wood into statues and toys. But
as our knowledge increased, humans began to change the composition of the substances as well—
clay was converted into pottery, hides were cured to make garments, copper ores were transformed
into copper tools and weapons, and grain was made into bread.

Humans began to practice chemistry when they learned to control fire and use it to cook, make
pottery, and smelt metals. Metals were combined to form alloys—for example, copper and tin were
mixed together to make bronze—and more elaborate smelting techniques produced iron. Alkalis
were extracted from ashes, and soaps were prepared by combining these alkalis with fats. Alcohol
was produced by fermentation and purified by distillation. Attempts to understand the behavior of
matter extend back for more than 2500 years. As early as the sixth century BC, Greek philosophers
discussed a system in which water was the basis of all things. You may have heard of the Greek
postulate that matter consists of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water.

Definition

Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the study of matter, study about the properties
of matter, study about the changes occurring in matter, and the laws that govern these changes.

Chemistry is sometimes referred to as “the central science” due to its interconnectedness with a
vast array of other STEM disciplines (STEM stands for areas of study in the science, technology,
engineering, and math fields). Chemistry and the language of chemists play vital roles in biology,
medicine, materials science, forensics, environmental science, and many other fields.

Chemistry is the branch of natural science which deals with the study of composition of matter
and properties of matter. It also deals with the laws and principles governing these changes.

2. Branches of Chemistry
Due to wide range of study of matter, chemistry has been divided into various branches. The main
branches of chemistry are:

1. Physical chemistry
2. Organic Chemistry
3. Inorganic Chemistry
4. Analytical Chemistry
5. Bio Chemistry
6. Industrial/Applied Chemistry
7. Nuclear Chemistry
8. Environmental Chemistry
9. Polymer Chemistry
1. Physical Chemistry:

It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the physical properties of substances and their
dependence on chemical bonding. It also explains the laws and principles governing the
combination of atoms and molecules in chemical reaction. Physical chemistry incorporates physics
into chemistry.

2. Inorganic Chemistry:

It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of elements and their compounds generally
obtained from non-living organisms i-e from minerals. Inorganic chemistry focuses on compounds
such as metals and minerals.
3. Organic Chemistry:

It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of carbon containing compounds. Actually,
it is the study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives

4. Analytical Chemistry:

It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of methods and techniques involved to
determine the kinds, quantity and quality of various compounds in a given substance.

5. Bio Chemistry:

It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of compounds and their reaction
(metabolism) occurring in the bodies of living organisms i-e plants and animals.

6. Industrial Chemistry:
It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of different chemical processes involved
in the chemical industries for the manufacture of synthetic products like glass, cement, paper, soda
ash, fertilizers, medicines etc.

7. Nuclear Chemistry:

It is branch of chemistry which deals with the study of changes occurring in the nuclei of atoms,
accompanied by the emission of invisible radiations.

8. Environmental Chemistry:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the interaction of chemical materials and
their effects on the environment of plants and animals. Personal hygiene, pollution and health
hazards are important areas of environmental chemistry.

9. Polymer Chemistry:

It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of process of polymerization and products
obtained through the process of polymerization such as plastics, synthetic fibers etc.

3. Scientific methods and measurements

It is important to understand that chemistry as a science is a procedure as well as sets of facts.

The ancient Greeks developed some powerful methods of acquiring knowledge, particularly in
mathematics, by using the process of deduction. Deduction starts with certain basic assumptions
or premises and then certain conclusions must logically follow. But deduction alone is NOT
enough for obtaining scientific knowledge! The scientific method originated in the seventeenth
century with such people as Galileo, Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton. The key to
the method was to make NO initial assumptions.

Chemistry is a science based on observation and experimentation. Doing chemistry involves

attempting to answer questions and explain observations in terms of the laws and theories of
chemistry, using procedures that are accepted by the scientific community. There is no single route
to answering a question or explaining an observation, but there is an aspect common to every
approach: Each uses knowledge based on experiments that can be reproduced to verify the results.
Some routes involve a hypothesis, a tentative explanation of observations that acts as a guide for
gathering and checking information. We test a hypothesis by experimentation, calculation, and/or
comparison with the experiments of others and then refine it as needed.

• Chemistry is a science based on observation and experimentation.

• The path of discovery that leads from question and observation to law or hypothesis to
theory, combined with experimental verification of the hypothesis and any necessary
modification of the theory, is called the scientific method.

• There is no single route to answering a question or explaining an observation, but there is

an aspect common to every approach: Each uses knowledge based on experiments that can
be reproduced to verify the results.

• Chemistry is a science based on observation and experimentation.

• The path of discovery that leads from question and observation to law or hypothesis to
theory, combined with experimental verification of the hypothesis and any necessary
modification of the theory, is called the scientific method.

• There is no single route to answering a question or explaining an observation, but there is

an aspect common to every approach: Each uses knowledge based on experiments that can
be reproduced to verify the results.
 •

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF INQUIRY

The Scientific method of inquiry is a systematic approach used by scientists to investigate and
learn about the natural world around us. The scientific method involves a series of steps that are
followed to ensure that scientific investigations are made in a logical, objective, and repeatable
manner.

Here are the steps involved in the scientific method:

1. Make Observations: Scientists begin by carefully observing and recording information about a
phenomenon or problem they wish to investigate, or gather prior knowledge about a certain topic
or concept
2. Formulate a Question: Based on their observations and prior knowledge, scientists create a
question or issue they want to investigate.
3. Develop a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about the answer to the question or
issue that has been formulated.

4. Conduct Experiments: In this step, scientists design and conduct experiments to test the
hypothesis.

5. Collect and analyse Data: Scientists record their observations and collect data from their
experiments.

6. Draw Conclusions: Based on the results of their experiments and observations, scientists use
logic to draw conclusions about their hypothesis.

7. Communicate Results: Finally, scientists communicate their findings through scientific papers,
presentations or other means.

The scientific method allows scientists to avoid bias and to ensure that their results are valid,
reliable and replicable. Through this methodical approach, scientists can discover new knowledge,
solve problems and explore and understand the natural world.
4. Units of measurement and conversions, Significant figures and
Scientific notations
Chemistry is a quantitative science, it deals with numbers, amounts, and measurements. To
describe matter and chemical reactions precisely, scientists use a standardized system of units
called the International System of Units (SI units).

Basic (Fundamental) Units

These are the building blocks of all other units. They are independent and cannot be broken into
simpler units.

Derived Units

The units which are derived from the basic units are called Derived Units. They are formed by
combining base units mathematically (multiplication or division). They help describe more
complex quantities. We can derive many units from the seven SI base units. For example, we can
use the base unit of length to define a unit of volume, and the base units of mass and length to
define a unit of density.

Significant Figures
Significant figures are the digits in a number that carry meaningful information about its precision.
They show how accurately a quantity has been measured or calculated.
Scientific measurements are reported so that every digit is certain except the last, which is
estimated. All digits of a measured quantity, including the certain one, are called significant
figures.

Rules

1. All non-zero digits are always significant.

Example: 1.54 → 3 significant figures
45 → 2 significant figures
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are always significant.
Example: 0.02503 → 4 significant figures
402 → 3 significant figures
3. Zeros that appear before non-zero digits are not significant (they only show decimal place).
Example: 0.103 → 3 significant figures
0.000002 → 1 significant figures
4. Zeros after a decimal point and after a non-zero digit are significant.
Example: 1.050 → 4 significant figures
5. If a number has trailing zeros but no decimal point, the zeros are not significant (unless
written in scientific notation).
Example: 1000 → 1 significant figures
1.000 x 103→ 3 significant figures

Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is a form of presenting very large numbers or very small numbers in a
simpler form.
To determine the power or exponent of 10, we must follow the rule listed below:
• The base should be always 10
• The exponent must be a non-zero integer, that means it can be either positive or negative
• The absolute value of the coefficient is greater than or equal to 1 but it should be less than
10
• Coefficients can be positive or negative numbers including whole and decimal numbers

5. Structure of Atom, Atomic mass, Isotopes and Atomic number

Based on the results of J.J. Thomson’s cathode ray and Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiments,
the following structure of the atom was proposed:
The atom consists of a positively charged nucleus, which contains most of the mass of the atom.
The protons are positively charged. The electrons, which havea negative charge, are located
outside the nucleus. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons, giving
an atom a neutral overall charge. The electrons are held in the shells by the electrostatic attraction
to the positively charged nucleus.

Electron

A basic particle with a mass almost equivalent to 1/1837th of that of a hydrogen atom and one unit
negative charge. It is negatively charged subatomic particle with a charge -1.6022x10-19 C. Its
relative charge is -1. Its mass is [Link] was discovered by J.J. Thomson. These
particles are deflected towards positive pole of electric field.

Proton

A basic particle with a mass almost equal to that of a hydrogen atom and one-unit positive charge.
This subatomic particle is positively charged with a charge equal to that of electron, but it is 1836
times heavier than an electron as its mass is 1.6727x10-27 kg. It's relative charge is +1. It is
deflected towards negative pole of electric field; thus electron and proton are electromagnetic in
nature.
Neutron

A fundamental particle with a mass almost equal to that of a hydrogen atom but no charge. Neutron
carries no charge as it passes by the electric and magnetic fields un-deflected. It is more massive
than proton. Its mass is 1.6750x10-27kg.

Atomic number (Z)

The number of unit positive charges or protons contained in the nucleus of an element's atom
is equal to the element's atomic number. It also represents the neutral atom's number of
electrons. For example, the number of protons in Na is 11, hence the atomic number of Na is
11. The identity of an element is defined by its atomic number (Z).
 The atomic number is therefore different for each element. The known elements are arranged
in order of increasing Z in the periodic table.

Mass number (A)

The nucleons are the elementary particles (protons and neutrons) that make up the nucleus of an
atom. An atom's mass number (A) is equal to the total of its protons and neutrons. It's always a
number that's a whole number. As a result, the mass number (A) equals the sum of the number of
protons (Z) and the number of neutrons (N)
Therefore, number of neutrons (n) = Mass Number (A) – Number of protons (Z)

Isotopes

Unlike protons, the number of neutrons is not absolutely fixed for most elements. Atoms that have
the same number of protons, and hence the same atomic number, but different numbers of neutrons
are called isotopes
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons, e.g. a
carbon atom will have 6 protons but can have 6, 7 or 8 neutrons.

6. The periodic table and periodic trends

The variation of properties versus position on the periodic table is called periodic trends.

Atomic Radii

The average distance of nucleus from the outermost electrons is called radius of an atom. It is the
measure of size of an atom as the boundary of electronic cloud is not very well defined so the term
average is used. The atomic radius is an indication of the size of an atom. The size of atoms vary
and there are two periodic trends. Atoms get smaller as you go from left to right across a period,
and get larger as you go down a group due to increasing number of shells, one in each period.

Ionization Energy
Ionization energy (IE) is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the
gas phase:
As you go down the periodic table, it becomes easier to remove an electron from an atom (i.e., IE
decreases) because the valence electron is farther away from the nucleus. However, as you go
across the periodic table and the electrons get drawn closer in, it takes more energy to remove an
electron; as a result, IE increases.
Electron Affinity

The opposite of IE is described by electron affinity (EA), which is the energy change when a gas-
phase atom accepts an electron:.
Electron affinity generally increases in magnitude as we move to the right across a period (row)
in the periodic table (across a period). There is not a definitive trend as you go down a group
(column) on the periodic table; sometimes electron affinity increases, sometimes it decreases.

Electronegativity

Electronegativity decreases from top to bottom in groups. There is an increase in the atomíc
number as we move down the group in the modern periodic table. The nuclear charge also increases
but the effect of the increase in nuclear charge is overcome by the addition of an extra shell
(increase in shielding effect). The attraction of shared electrons with the nucleus decreases. Hence,
the value of electronegativity decreases. For example, in the halogen group as we move down the
group from fluorine to astatine the electronegativity value decreases.

Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period. When we move from left to right in
periods effective nuclear charge increases. Shielding effect remains constant. Hence, the size of
atom decreases. The power of atoms to attract shared pair of electron increases.