Chapter 3

Microwave Transmission
Lines

3·0 INTRODUCTION

Conventional two-conductor transmission lines are commonly used for transmitting

microwave energy. If a line is properly matched to its characteristic impedance at
each terminal, its efficiency can reach a maximum.
In ordinary circuit theory it is assumed that all impedance elements are lumped
constants. This is not true for a long transmission line over a wide range of frequen-
cies. Frequencies of operation are so high that inductances of short lengths of con-
ductors and capacitances between short conductors and their surroundings cannot be
neglected. These inductances and capacitances are distributed along the length of a
conductor, and their effects combine at each point of the conductor. Since the wave-
length is short in comparison to the physical length of the line, distributed parame-
ters cannot be represented accurately by means of a lumped-parameter equivalent
circuit. Thus microwave transmission lines can be analyzed in terms of voltage, cur-
rent, and impedance only by the distributed-circuit theory. If the spacing between
the lines is smaller than the wavelength of the transmitted signal, the transmission
line must be analyzed as a waveguide.

3·1 TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS AND SOLUTIONS

3·1·1 Transmission-Line Equations

A transmission line can be analyzed either by the solution of Maxwell's field equa-
tions or by the methods of distributed-circuit theory. The solution of Maxwell's
equations involves three space variables in addition to the time variable. The
distributed-circuit method, however, involves only one space variable in addition to
61
62 Microwave Transmission Lines Chap.3

the time variable. In this ~ection the latter method is used to analyze a transmission
line in terms of the voltage, current, impedance, and power along the line.
Based on uniformly distributed-circuit theory, the schematic circuit of a con-
ventional two-conductor transmission line with constant parameters R, L, G, and C
is shown in Fig. 3-1-1. The parameters are expressed in their respective names per
unit length, and the wave propagation is assumed in the positive z direction.

R ~z l ~z A R ~z l ~z B

V(,,<)~
- ;GI 1ic
i(z, t) ; ; i(z + ~z. t)

~
C~z / Load
Generator V(z + M, t)

--z

Figure 3-1-1 Elementary section of a transmission line.

By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the summation of the voltage drops around the
central loop is given by
ai(z, t) av(z, t)
v(z, t) = i(z, t)R Az + L A z - - + v(z, t) + d Az (3-1-1)
at z
Rearranging this equation, dividing it by Az, and then omitting the argument (z, t),
which is understood, we obtain
av ai
--=Ri+L- (3-1-2)
az at
Using Kirchhoff's current law, the summation of the currents at point B in Fig.
3-1-1 can be expressed as
av(z + Az, t)
i(z, t) = v(z + Az, t)G Az + C Az + i(z + Az, t)
at

= [ v(z, t) + av(z, t)
az Az G Az
J (3-1-3)

+ C u.z
A
-a [ v (z, t ) + av (z, t) u.z
A A J .( )
+ l z, t + ai (z, t) u.z
at az az
By rearranging the preceding equation, dividing it by Az, omitting (z, t), and as-
suming Az equal to zero, we have
ai av
-- = Gv + C- (3-1-4)
az at
Then by differentiating Eq. (3-1-2) with respect to z and Eq. (3-1-4) with respect to
t and combining the results, the final transmission-line equation in voltage form is
Sec. 3.1 Transmission-Line Equations and Solutions 63

found to be
a2 v av a2 v
- = RGv + (RC + LG)- + LC-2 (3-1-5)
az2 at at
Also, by differentiating Eq. (3-1-2) with respect tot and Eq. (3-1-4) with respect to
z and combining the results, the final transmission-line equation in current form is
a2 i ai a2 i
az 2 = RGi + (RC + LG) at+ LC at 2 (3-1-6)

All these transmission-line equations are applicable to the general transient solution.
The voltage and current on the line are the functions of both position z and time t.
The instantaneous line voltage and current can be expressed as
v(z, t) =Re V(z)ejwt (3-1-7)
i(z, t) = Re I (z)ejwt (3-1-8)
where Re stands for "real part of." The factors V(z) aand I(z) are complex quantities
of the sinusoidal functions of position z on the line and are known as phasors. The
phasors give the magnitudes and phases of the sinusoidal function at each position of
z, and they can be expressed as
V(z) = V+e-yz + V-eyz (3-1-9)
I(z) = l+e-yz + Leyz (3-1-10)
y =a+ jf3 (propagation constant) (3-1-11)
where V+ and I+ indicate complex amplitudes in the positive z direction, V- and L
signify complex amplitudes in the negative z direction, a is the attenuation constant
in nepers per unit length, and f3 is the phase constant in radians per unit length.
If we substitute jw for a/at in Eqs. (3-1-2), (3-1-4), (3-1-5), and (3-1-6) and
divide each equation by ejwi, the transmission-line equations in phasor form of the
frequency domain become
dV
-ZI (3-1-12)
dz

di= -YV (3-1-13)

dz
dzV - zy
dz 2 - y (3-1-14)

d2 I - 2 I
dz 2 - y (3-1-15)

in which the following substitutions have been made:

Z = R + jwL (ohms per unit length) (3-1-16)
Y = G + jwC (mhos per unit length) (3-1-17)
y = \/Zr = a + jf3 (propagation constant) (3-1-18)
64 Microwave Transmission Lines Chap. 3

For a lossless line, R = G = 0, and the transmission-line equations are expressed as

dV
-jwll (3-1-19)
dz
di
-jwCV (3-1-20)
dz
d2 V
2
-w 2 LCV (3-1-21)
dz
d2I
-w 2 LCl (3-1-22)
dz 2
It is interesting to note that Eqs. (3-1-14) and (3-1-15) for a transmission line are
similar to equations of the electric and magnetic waves, respectively. The only dif-
ference is that the transmission-line equations are one-dimensional.

3·1·2 Solutions of Transmission-Line Equations

The one possible solution for Eq. (3-1-14) is

(3-1-23)
The factors V+ and V- represents complex quantities. The term involving e-jf3z
shows a wave traveling in the positive z direction, and the term with the factor ejf3z is
a wave going in the negative z direction. The quantity {3z is called the electrical
length of the line and is measured in radians.
Similarly, the one possible solution for Eq. (3-1-15) is
I = Yo(V +e--yz - v_e-YZ) = Yo(V+e-aze-Jf3z - V-eazejf3z) (3-1-24)
In Eq. (3-1-24) the characteristic impedance of the line is defined as
1
Zo =Yo=
fz = ~RG ++ jwL
\{y
.
jwC =Ro± JXo (3~1-25)

The magnitude of both voltage and current waves on the line is shown in Fig. 3-1-2.

0
(a) Voltage wave (b) Current wave

Figure 3-1·2 Magnitude of voltage and current traveling waves.

Sec. 3.1 Transmission-Line Equations and Solutions 65

At microwave frequencies it can be seen that

R ~ wL and G ~ wC (3-1-26)
By using the binomial expansion, the propagation constant can be expressed as
y = V(R + jwL)(G + jwC)
= \/ (jw )2 LC ~r-(-1-+-j-:L_)_(_1_+_1_·~-c-)

= jw \/LC[ ( ~) (I + .!_21wC
1+ .!_21wL ~) J (3-1-27)

= jw\/LC[1 + !(~ + ~)]

2 jWL ]WC

= ~(R~ + c~) + jwYLC

Therefore the attenuation and phase constants are, respectively, given by

a= ~(R~ +a~) (3-1-28)

f3 = w\/LC (3-1-29)
Similarly, the characteristic impedance is found to be

Zo =
V R
·
G
+ jwL
+ jwC
{i (1 + _!!_)1/2(1 + __Q_)-1/2
-Ve jwL jwC

= ~(1 + ~j:L)(1 - ~j~C) (3-1-30)

=~ [ + ~ c:L -j~C)]
l

=~
From Eq. (3-1-29) the phase velocity is
w 1
Vp = ~ = YLC (3-1-31)

The product of LC is independent of the size and separation of the conductors and
depends only on the permeability µ, and permittivity of E of the insulating medium.
If a lossless transmission line used for microwave frequencies has an air dielectric
and contains no ferromagnetic materials, free-space parameters can be assumed.
66 Microwave Transmission Lines Chap. 3

Thus the numerical value of 1/vLC for air-insulated conductors is approximately

equal to the velocity of light in vacuum. That is,
1 1
v = - - = - - - = c = 3 x 108 m/s (3-1-32)
p vLC ~

When the dielectric of a lossy microwave transmission line is not air, the phase ve-
locity is smaller than the velocity of light in vacuum and is given by

1 c
v, = vµ = v;:;, (3-1-33)

In general, the relative phase velocity factory can be defined as

y, . f; _ actual phase velocity
e1oc1ty actor - . f . h .
ve1oc1ty o 11g t m vacuum
v.
v =-=---
r C v;:;, (3-1-34)

A low-loss transmission line filled only with dielectric medium, such as a coaxial
line with solid dielectric between conductors, has a velocity factor on the order of
about 0.65.

Example 3-1-1: Line Characteristic Impedance and Propagation Constant

A transmission line has the following parameters:
R = 2 D.!m G = 0.5 mmho/m f = 1 GHz

L = 8 nH/m C = 0.23 pF
Calculate: (a) the characteristic impedance; (b) the propagation constant.
Solution
a. From Eq. (3-1-25) the line characteristic impedance is
~ I 2 + j27T x 109 x 8 x 10- 9
Zo = VG+};;;c = \j 0.5 X 10- 3 + j27T x 109 X 0.23 x 10- 12

_ I 50.31~ _ /Q ,1(10 _ .
- \j 15.29 x 10-4/70.910 - 181.39~ - 179.44 + 126.50
b. From Eq. (3-1-18) the propagation constant is

y = Y(R + jwl)(G + jwC) = Y(50.31/87.72°)(15.29 x 10- 4/70.91°)

= Y769.24 x 10- 4/158.63°

= 0.2774/79.31° = 0.051 + j0.273

 Sec. 3.2 Reflection Coefficient and Transmission Coefficient 67

3·2 REFLECTION COEFFICIENT AND TRANSMISSION

COEFFICIENT

3·2·1 Reflection Coefficient

In the analysis of the solutions of transmission-line equations in Section 3-1, the

traveling wave along the line contains two components: one traveling in the positive
z direction and the other traveling the negative z direction. If the load impedance is
equal to the line characteristic impedance, however, the reflected traveling wave
does not exist.
Figure 3-2-1 shows a transmission line terminated in an impedance Ze. It is
usually more convenient to start solving the transmission-line problem from the re-
ceiving rather than the sending end, since the voltage-to-current relationship at the
load point is fixed by the load impedance. The incident voltage and current waves
traveling along the transmission line are given by
V = V+e-yz + V-e+yz (3-2-1)
I = l+e-yz + Le+yz (3-2-2)
in which the current wave can be expressed in terms of the voltage by

i
v
= _:_e-yz v-
- -eyz (3-2-3)
Zo Zo
If the line has a length of e, the voltage and current at the receiving end become
(3-2-4)
1
le= -(V+e-ye - V-e'Ye) (3-2-5)
Zo
The ratio of the voltage to the current at the receiving end is the load impedance.
That is,

(3-2-6)

z, •+- -·-
-
Sending
end
V+ Zo v_
-
Receiving
end
Z2

Q
0 • z d I 0

Figure 3-2·1 Transmission line terminated in a load impedance.

68 Microwave Transmission Lines Chap. 3

The reflection coefficient, which is designated by r (gamma), is defined as

. ffi . reflected voltage or current
Reft ection coe c1ent = -.-.---~~---­
mc1dent voltage or current

(3-2-7)

If Eq. (3-2-6) is solved for the ratio of the reflected voltage at the receiving end,
which is V_e-rc, to the incident voltage at the receiving end, which is V+e-rc, the re-
sult is the reflection coefficient at the receiving end:
V-eyc Ze - Zo
(3-2-8)
re = V+e--re = Zc + Zo
If the load impedance and/or the characteristic impedance are complex quantities, as
is usually the case, the reflection coefficient is generally a complex quantity that can
be expressed as
re = Ire Je 10c (3-2-9)
where Irc I is the magnitude and never greater than unity-that is, Irc I : : : ; l. Note
that (Jc is the phase angle between the incident and reflected voltages at the receiving
end. It is usually called the phase angle of the reflection coefficient.
The general solution of the reflection coefficient at any point on the line, then,
corresponds to the incident and reflected waves at that point, each attenuated in the
direction of its own progress along the line. The generalized reflection coefficient is
defined as

(3-2-10)

From Fig. 3-2-l let z = C - d. Then the reflection coefficient at some point located
a distance d from the receiving end is
V-ey(f-d) v_eyC
rd = V+e--r<t-dl
= ---e-2yd = r
V+e--rc e
e-2yd (3-2-11)

Next, the reflection coefficient at that point can be expressed m terms of the
reflection coefficient at the receiving end as
(3-2-12)
This is a very useful equation for determining the reflection coefficient at any point
along the line. For a lossy line, both the magnitude and phase of the reflection
coefficient are changing in an inward-spiral way as shown in Fig. 3-2-2. For a loss-
less line, a = 0, the magnitude of the reflection coefficient remains constant, and
only the phase of r is changing circularly toward the generator with an angle of
-2{3d as shown in Fig. 3-2-3.
It is evident that re will be zero and there will be no reflection from the re-
ceiving end when the terminating impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance
Sec. 3.2 Reflection Coefficient and Transmission Coefficient 69

Figure 3-2-2 Reflection coefficient for

lossy line.

I fl= I

I
I
I
\ oo I
\ I
\ I
\ I
\ I
\. /
'\. /
" '-..
'--
--- - --------
/
/
Figure 3-2-3 Reflection coefficient for
lossless line.

of the line. Thus a terminating impedance that differs from the characteristic
impedance will create a reflected wave traveling toward the source from the termina-
tion. The reflection, upon reaching the sending end, will itself be reflected if the
source impedance is different from the line characteristic impedance at the send-
ing end.

3·2·2 Transmission Coefficient

A transmission line terminated in its characteristic impedance Zo is called a properly

terminated line. Otherwise it is called an improperly terminated line. As described
earlier, there is a reflection coefficient r at any point along an improperly termi-
nated line. According to the principle of conservation of energy, the incident power
minus the reflected power must be equal to the power transmitted to the load. This
can be expressed as

1- f ~ = Zo T1 (3-2-13)
Ze
Equation (3-2-13) will be verified later. The letter T represents the transmission
coefficient, which is defined as