Sex, Gender, and Related Terms

1. Sex
 Definition: Biological category based on anatomy,
chromosomes, and hormones.
 Types: Biological male and biological female.
 Assigned at birth: A medical team assigns sex based on
external genitalia.
 Development: Formation of reproductive organs depends
on hormones and hormone receptors.
 Hormones: All humans have the same reproductive
hormones but in different amounts.
2. Gender (Gender Identity)
 Definition: A person’s internal sense of who they are.
 Note: May or may not match their biological sex.
3. Gender Expression
 Definition: How someone presents themselves to the
world.
 Examples: Clothing, hairstyle, behavior, mannerisms.
4. Sexual Orientation Embryonic Development — Student Notes
 Definition: Describes who someone is sexually or 1. Fertilization
romantically attracted to.  A haploid egg (X) and a haploid sperm (X or Y) merge.
Hormones of the Reproductive System — Student  This forms a diploid embryo with a full set of
Notes chromosomes.
1. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) 2. Chromosome Contribution
 Released by the hypothalamus.  Egg: always contributes an X chromosome.
 Controls the release of FSH and LH from the anterior  Sperm: can contribute X (→ female XX) or Y (→ male
pituitary. XY).
2. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)  Sex chromosomes help guide early reproductive system
 Function: Helps develop gametes (eggs in females, sperm development.
in males). 3. Early Development
3. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)  Development of all organ systems begins shortly after
 In females: Triggers ovulation (release of the egg). fertilization.
 In males: Stimulates testosterone production in the  Organ systems develop at the same time, not one after
testes. another.
4. Androgens (e.g., Testosterone) 
 Functions: Development of Sexual Organs — Student Notes
o Support gamete production. 1. Indifferent Stage (Weeks 1–7)
o Increase sex drive.  Sexual organs are developing but look the same in all
o Affect tissue function throughout the body embryos.
(muscles, bones, etc.).  No visible difference between male and female structures
5. Inhibin yet.
 Part of a negative feedback system. 2. Differentiated Stage (Begins at Week 7)
 Inhibits FSH release from the anterior pituitary.  Testosterone present → Biological male development
6. Estrogens o Testes form
 Functions: o Penis develops
o Support gamete development.  No testosterone → Biological female development
o Increase sex drive. o Ovaries form
o Influence many tissues (bones, skin, fat o Clitoris develops
distribution). Key Point
7. Progesterone  The presence or absence of testosterone determines
 Prepares and maintains the uterine lining for pregnancy. whether the embryo develops male or female sexual
8. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) organs.
 Produced during pregnancy.
 Helps maintain uterine changes and supports early Migration of Primordial Germ Cells — Student Notes
pregnancy.
1. When It Happens

 Occurs during the indifferent stage of development.

 Happens around weeks 4–5 of gestation.
2. What Happens 3. If Testosterone and AMH Are NOT Present (Female
 Primordial germ cells (PGCs) begin the first steps of Development)
reproductive system development.  No testosterone → mesonephric ducts break down.
 PGCs migrate from the yolk sac into the developing  No AMH → paramesonephric ducts continue to grow.
embryo.  Result: Development of female internal reproductive
 They travel to the genital ridge. structures.
3. Importance
 The genital ridge later forms the reproductive tubes and
structures (ovaries or testes).
 Primordial germ cells eventually develop into sperm (in
males) or eggs (in females).

Development of Internal Ducts

1. Mesonephric Ducts (Male Development)
 Develop only when testosterone is present.
 Become major male reproductive structures:
Development of Internal Ducts — Student Notes o Ductus deferens
1. Early Structures o Seminal vesicles
 Embryos have two duct systems during early o Seminiferous tubules
development: 2. Paramesonephric Ducts (Female Development)
o Mesonephric (Wolffian) ducts  Develop when testosterone and AMH are absent.
o Paramesonephric (Müllerian) ducts  Become female internal reproductive structures:
2. What Happens o Uterine tubes (Fallopian tubes)
 Only one duct system will remain, depending on o Uterus
hormones. o Upper part of the vagina
 The other duct system is destroyed. 3. Germ Cell Development
3. Hormonal Control  Without testosterone:
 Presence of Y chromosome → SRY gene activated o Germ cells continue meiosis
o Produces testosterone → keeps mesonephric o They become oocytes (egg cells)
ducts (forms male internal organs). 4. Key Principle
o Produces AMH (Anti-Müllerian Hormone) →  Embryos start with both ducts, but
destroys paramesonephric ducts. ONLY one set continues to develop.
 No Y chromosome → No SRY → No testosterone or  Hormonal signaling decides:
AMH o Testosterone + AMH → Male structures
o Paramesonephric ducts develop (forms female o No testosterone + No AMH → Female
internal organs). structures
o Mesonephric ducts degenerate. Development of External Genitalia — Student Notes
Early Structures (Same in All Embryos)

Mesonephric vs. Paramesonephric Ducts —  Genital folds

1. Role of Hormones
 Testosterone + hCG → stimulate interstitial cells in the  Genital tubercle
testes.
 Interstitial cells produce more testosterone.
 Urogenital sinus
These structures transform into male or female external
2. If Testosterone and AMH Are Present (Male Development)
genitalia depending on hormones.
 Testosterone → keeps mesonephric ducts and helps them
develop.
 AMH (Anti-Müllerian Hormone) → destroys Biological Female Development (No testosterone)
paramesonephric ducts.
 Result: Development of male internal reproductive Embryonic Structure Becomes
structures. Urogenital sinus Lower 2/3 of the vagina
Genital folds Labia
. Genital tubercle Clitoris
Sexual Development (Puberty)
Definition

 Puberty is the stage when humans reach sexual maturity.

 The body becomes capable of reproduction.

Key Processes
1. Hormone Release
o Triggers sexual organ maturation and
secondary sex characteristics.
2. Maturation of Sexual Organs
o Development of reproductive organs (e.g., testes,
ovaries).
3. Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics
o Examples: Vagina
 Males: facial hair, deeper voice, broader 1. Function
shoulders  Entrance and exit of the female reproductive tract.
 Females: breast development, wider  Passage for menstrual flow, intercourse, and childbirth.
hips, pubic hair 2. Structure
Breast  Muscular canal with flexible walls.
1. Presence  Rugae (folds) allow expansion during intercourse and
 Present in all individuals. childbirth.
 Size increases mainly due to estrogen.  Acidic pH protects against infection.
2. Structure o Acid produced by Lactobacillus bacteria.
 Mammary glands: Modified sweat glands that produce
milk.
 Alveoli: Clusters of milk-producing glands.
 Lactiferous sinuses: Channels connecting alveoli to
lactiferous ducts.
 Lactiferous ducts: Transport milk to the nipple for exit.
3. Function
 Produce and deliver milk for infant feeding.

Ovaries
Female External Genitalia (Vulva) 1. Location and Structure
1. Vulva
 Collective term for all external female genitalia.
 Paired female gonads in the pelvic cavity.
2. Components
 Held in place by:
Structure Description / Function
o Mesovarium
Mons pubis Fat pad that covers and protects the pubic symphysis.
Labia
Larger, hair-covered, external folds of skin. o Broad ligament
majora
Labia
Smaller, hairless, inner folds of skin.
minora o Suspensory ligament
Female equivalent of the penis; rich in nerves for sexual
Clitoris
sensation and orgasm.
o Ovarian ligament

 Covered by:
 Ligaments Supporting the Uterus
1. Broad Ligament
 Extends laterally from uterus to pelvic wall.
 Helps anchor the uterus in place.
2. Round Ligament
 Attaches near the uterine tubes.
 Extends inferiorly to the labia majora.
 Helps maintain uterine position during movement.
3. Uterosacral Ligament
 Connects cervix to the pelvic wall.
 Provides posterior support to the uterus.

Uterine Tubes (Fallopian Tubes)

1. Location
 Next to the ovaries but not directly connected.
 Passageway for oocytes to reach the uterus.

2. Structure & Regions

Region Features / Function
Funnel-shaped; fimbriae create currents to sweep
Infundibulum
eggs in.
Ampulla Widest part; usual site of fertilization.
Isthmus Narrow segment connecting to the uterus.
3. Movement of Oocyte
 Fimbriae in infundibulum help capture the oocyte.
 Cilia and smooth muscle contractions move the oocyte Layers of the Uterine Wall
through the tube. 1. Perimetrium
Uterus and Cervix  Outermost layer of the uterus.
1. Uterus  Thin protective covering.
 Hollow, muscular organ in the pelvic cavity, below the 2. Myometrium
bladder.  Middle muscular layer.
 Function: Site of implantation and development of the  Responsible for uterine contractions during labor and
embryo. menstruation.
3. Endometrium
 Innermost lining.
 Thickens monthly at puberty to prepare for implantation.
Regions of the Uterus  Sloughs off as menstrual bleeding if implantation does
not occur.
Region Description
Rounded upper portion above the openings of the uterine Uvarian and Uterine Cycle
Fundus
tubes.
Body Main central region. Reproductive Cycles — Student Notes
Narrow lower portion connecting to the vagina; plugged 1. Overview
Cervix
with mucus to protect against infection.  Two main cycles: Ovarian cycle and Uterine cycle.
 Coordinate reproductive functions to increase chances
Key Function of pregnancy.
2. Ovarian Cycle
 Produces oocytes (eggs).
 Supports embryo/fetus growth and regulates passage of
 Prepares egg for fertilization.
sperm and menstrual flow.

3. Uterine Cycle

 Prepares uterus to support an embryo/fetus if fertilization

occurs.

4. Cycle Timing

 Typical cycle ranges from 21–35 days.

 28 days is considered the average.

Ovarian Cycle Folliculogenesis

1. Overview Definition
 A series of hormone-driven events in biological females.  The process of growth and development of ovarian
 Prepares an oocyte (egg) for fertilization. follicles where eggs develop.
2. Key Process: Oocyte Development
 Folliculogenesis: Development and maturation of ovarian Stages of Follicle Development
follicles that contain the oocyte.
Oogenesis — Student Notes
Follicle Stage Features / Description
1. Definition
Primordial Present at birth; oocyte surrounded by single
 The production of oocytes (egg cells) in the ovary.
follicles layer of granulosa cells.
2. Process
1. Fetal Development Begin forming at puberty monthly due to
o Oogonia (diploid germ cells) are formed. Primary follicles hormonal changes; continue developing
o Mitosis produces additional oogonia. toward secondary follicles.
o Oogonia begin meiosis I → become primary Secondary Surrounded by thick granulosa cell layer;
oocytes. follicles outer theca cells present.
o Development pauses at this stage before birth. Tertiary Contain large antrum filled with follicular
2. Puberty (Graafian) fluid; one follicle per month ruptures during
o Each month, a few primary oocytes resume follicles ovulation.
meiosis I. Atretic follicles Follicles that degenerate and do not ovulate.
o One oocyte typically completes meiosis I →
becomes a secondary oocyte, ready for ovulation. Key Points
 Folliculogenesis ensures a mature egg is available each
Oogenesis — Student Notes cycle.
1. Definition  Most follicles undergo atresia; only one typically
 The production of oocytes (egg cells) in the ovary. ovulates per cycle.
2. Process
A. Fetal Development
 Oogonia (diploid germ cells) are formed.
 Mitosis produces additional oogonia.
 Oogonia begin meiosis I → become primary oocytes.
 Development pauses at this stage before birth.
B. Puberty
 Each month, a few primary oocytes resume meiosis I.
 Surge of LH triggers meiosis I completion in one primary
oocyte:
o Produces a secondary oocyte (retains most
cytoplasm)
o Produces the first polar body (disintegrates) Hormonal Control of Ovarian Cycle
 Secondary oocyte begins meiosis II but pauses at 1. Follicular Phase
metaphase II during ovulation.  GnRH (from hypothalamus) → stimulates FSH and LH
C. Fertilization release from the anterior pituitary.
 If a sperm fertilizes the secondary oocyte:  FSH → promotes development and growth of ovarian
o Meiosis II completes follicles.
o A zygote is formed  LH → stimulates estrogen production by theca and
Fertilization granulosa cells.
1. Definition  Negative feedback:
 Occurs when the nucleus of the sperm enters the o High estrogen levels inhibit GnRH, FSH, and
cytoplasm of the egg. LH.
 Produces a diploid cell called a zygote (fertilized egg). o Smaller follicles undergo atresia.
2. Meiosis Completion 2. Ovulation
 After fertilization, the egg completes meiosis II.  The surviving tertiary (Graafian) follicle releases high
 A second polar body is formed to discard extra levels of estrogen.
chromosomes.  High estrogen triggers LH surge.
 LH + estrogen → cause ovulation (release of the
secondary oocyte).
Key Point

 Fertilization restores the diploid chromosome number

and initiates zygote development.
Follicular Phase — Student Notes 2. Luteal Phase
1. Hormonal Control  FSH and LH secretion decreases, slowing further
 FSH → promotes development of ovarian follicles. follicular development.
 Tertiary follicles grow larger and secrete estrogens and  Corpus luteum secretes:
progesterone. o Progesterone → maintains the uterus
 Estrogen exerts negative feedback: o Estrogen → supports uterine lining
o Inhibits FSH release
o Causes smaller follicles to undergo atresia Uterine Cycle
2. Uterine Coordination 1. Overview
 Hormones also prepare the uterus for potential  Series of changes in the uterine lining (endometrium).
implantation during the uterine cycle.  Driven by hormonal fluctuations (estrogen and
3. Dominant Follicle progesterone) from the ovary.
 Only one follicle survives to eventually undergo  Occurs simultaneously with the ovarian cycle.
ovulation. 2. Phases
1. Menses Phase – shedding of the uterine lining
(menstruation).
Triggering Ovulation 2. Proliferative Phase – endometrium thickens under the
1. Hormonal Events influence of estrogen.
 The surviving dominant follicle secretes high levels of 3. Secretory Phase – endometrium becomes glandular and
estrogen. vascular, preparing for implantation, under progesterone
 Positive feedback: High estrogen stimulates the anterior influence.
pituitary. Male External Genitalia — Student Notes
2. LH Surge 1. Components
 Anterior pituitary releases a surge of LH.  Penis
 LH surge triggers: o Passageway for urine and semen.
o Full maturation of the dominant follicle o Contains the spongy/penile urethra.
o Ovulation — release of the secondary oocyte o Erectile tissue fills with blood during sexual
Ovulation — Student Notes arousal.
1. Trigger  Scrotum
 LH surge causes the preovulatory (dominant) follicle to o Houses the testes.
rupture. o Biological homologue of female labia majora.
2. Mechanism o Sac-like pouch with skin, keeping testes cooler
 Enzymes break down the ovarian wall at the site of the than body temperature to optimize sperm
bulging follicle. production.
 Pressure from the antrum helps the wall to break open. o Raphe: site of fusion of genital folds during
embryonic development.
3. Result
2. Penis Structure
 Egg (secondary oocyte) and antral fluid are released
from the ovary into the uterine tube (fallopian tube). Part Description
Root Internal component attached to the body.
Hormonal Control of Ovarian Cycle — Luteal Phase Rod-like column containing three erectile tissues: 2
1. Luteinization Shaft corpora cavernosa, 1 corpus spongiosum (urethra runs
 LH surge triggers granulosa and theca cells to undergo through it).
luteinization. Expanded distal head, covered by foreskin in
 Transforms the remnants of the ruptured follicle into the Glans
uncircumcised males.
corpus luteum. Tubular organ running entire length; transports urine and
Urethra
semen.
2. Corpus Luteum Function
 Secretes progesterone to maintain the uterus in case of
3. Semen
implantation.
 Mixture of sperm + fluids from accessory glands that
3. If No Fertilization
support and nourish sperm.
 Corpus luteum degenerates.
Regulation of Testicular Temperature — Student
 Becomes the corpus albicans (scar tissue).
Notes
Ovarian and Anterior Pituitary Hormones 1. Temperature Regulation
1. Follicular Phase
 FSH and LH → promote development of ovarian  Dartos and cremaster muscles contract or relax to lift or
follicles. lower testes.
 Developing follicles release increasing amounts of
estrogen.  Maintains optimal temperature for sperm production
(slightly below body temperature).
2. Spermatic Cord
 Pathway for structures entering and exiting the testes.
 Contains:
o Testicular artery → supplies blood to testes
o Testicular veins → drain blood
o Lymphatic vessels → drain fluid
o Nerves → sensory and autonomic signals
o Ductus deferens → transports sperm to urethra
Inguinal Canal
1. Function
 Passageway for structures entering or exiting the pelvic
cavity from the scrotum.
2. Clinical Relevance
 Creates a natural weak spot in the anterior pelvic wall.
 Biological males are at higher risk for inguinal hernias
due to this weakness.
Male Accessory Glands — Student Notes
1. Seminal Vesicles
 Located posterior to the bladder.
 Produce ~60% of semen volume.
 Secretion contains fructose → provides energy for sperm
swimming.
2. Prostate Gland
 Located inferior to the bladder.
 Secretes alkaline, milky fluid → helps coagulate semen
and neutralize vaginal acidity.
3. Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s Glands)
 Located at posterior perineum.
 Secrete lubricating fluid → eases passage of semen
Testes and Sperm Pathway through urethra.
1. Testes
 Biological male gonads producing sperm and sex Sperm Production — Student Notes
hormones.
 Covered by:
o Tunica vaginalis → serous membrane 1. Overview
o Tunica albuginea → dense connective tissue  Male reproductive system produces gametes (sperm) and
dividing testes into lobules sex hormones.
2. Seminiferous Tubules  Does not support embryonic development like the
 Located within lobules. female reproductive system.
 Site of sperm production. 2. Processes
3. Sperm Transport 1. Spermatogenesis
1. Rete testis → collects sperm from seminiferous tubules. o Formation of haploid sperm cells from diploid
2. Efferent ductules → transport sperm to epididymis. germ cells.
3. Epididymis → sperm fully mature. 2. Spermiogenesis
o Maturation of haploid cells into fully functional
4. Ductus deferens → carries mature sperm: sperm.

o Enters pelvic cavity via inguinal canal 3. Supporting Cells

o Crosses superior portion of bladder  Interstitial (Leydig) cells → secrete androgens

o Enters prostate gland (testosterone) to promote sperm production.
o Connects with urethra for ejaculation
 Nurse (Sertoli) cells → support and nourish developing
sperm.
 3. Comparison to Females
Spermatogenesis  Ovaries and adrenal glands produce small amounts of
1. Definition testosterone.
 Production of haploid sperm cells through mitosis  Contributes to libido in females.
followed by meiosis.
2. Process Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive System
1. Spermatogonia (diploid germ cells) undergo mitosis → 1. Testosterone
two daughter cells:  Secreted by interstitial (Leydig) cells in the testes.
o One daughter cell replenishes spermatogonia.  LH stimulates its release.
o Other daughter cell → becomes primary  Promotes spermatogenesis, male secondary sexual
spermatocyte. characteristics, and libido.
2. Primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I → produces 2. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
two haploid secondary spermatocytes.  Stimulates spermatogenesis through action on Sertoli
3. Secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II → yields (nurse) cells.
four haploid spermatids. 3. Inhibin
4. Spermatids undergo spermiogenesis → mature into  Secreted by Sertoli cells.
functional sperm.  Inhibits FSH release to regulate sperm production.

Stages of Coitus — Student Notes

1. Overview
 Sexual responses occur in three stages:
1. Excitement and Plateau
2. Orgasm
3. Resolution
2. Excitement and Plateau
 Triggers: thoughts, touch, or sexual dreams.
 Systemic myotonia: increased muscle tension throughout
the body.
 Vasodilation: Nitric oxide causes blood engorgement in
Mature Sperm genitalia.
1. Overview  Urethra closed to prevent urine passage.
3. Orgasm
 Streamlined structure for speed and mobility.  Brief, intense phase following excitement/plateau.
 Sympathetic nervous system (SNS): increases heart rate,
blood pressure, and breathing.
 Specialized regions for fertilization and movement.  Oxytocin rises → promotes social bonding.
 Pelvic muscle contractions → help sperm movement
2. Structure and Function toward egg.
4. Resolution
Region Description / Function  Follows orgasm (or plateau if orgasm does not occur).
Head Contains haploid nucleus with genetic material.  Parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) dominates.
Contains enzymes to penetrate the egg  Refractory period in males prevents immediate erection.
Acrosome  If orgasm does not occur, resolution phase is incomplete.
membrane.
Packed with mitochondria → produce ATP to
Midpiece Pregnancy, Birth, Lactation
power movement.
1. Fertilization
Tail
Provides motility for sperm to swim toward egg.
(Flagellum)
 Definition: Sperm meets egg; genetic material combines
Interstitial Cells to form a zygote.
1. Location
 Found between seminiferous tubules within the testes.  Sperm Capacitation:
2. Function
 Secrete testosterone, the primary male sex hormone. o Occurs after sperm enter vagina or uterus.
 Levels increase during puberty.
 Testosterone promotes: o Enzymes in vaginal/uterine fluids degrade
o Muscle development acrosome covering.
o Bone growth
o Skin and hair characteristics o Sperm gain ability to penetrate the egg.
o Behavior and libido
 Acrosomal Reaction:

o Release of enzymes to penetrate the zona

2. Preembryonic Stage 3. Postpartum
 Zygote divides but does not grow in size.
 Trophoblast forms along outer rim → will become  First six weeks after birth.
placenta.  Uterus returns to pre-pregnancy size via autolysis (self-
 Adhesive molecules of uterus + preembryo allow digestion of uterine cells).
implantation.
 Implanted zygote = embryo.
 Preembryo moves along uterine tube toward uterus
during this stage.
3. Development of Placenta 4. Lactation
 Embryo requires more nutrients and oxygen than uterus
can provide.  Prolactin: promotes milk production.
 Arteries in uterine wall connect to placental capillaries o Release stimulated by nursing.
via umbilical cord. o Mothers who do not breastfeed stop producing
 Fetal blood remains separate; maternal blood supplies: milk.
o Oxygen and nutrients  Prolactin inhibits estrogen → decreases mitotic rate,
o Removes carbon dioxide and waste helping:
4. Placenta Formation o Uterus return to original size
 Cytotrophoblasts invade spiral arteries → arteries o Reduce mitosis in breast tissue, potentially
enlarge. preventing breast cancer
 Other cytotrophoblasts form network of fetal capillaries.
 Placenta attaches to fetus via umbilical cord.
 Maternal blood volume and vessels increase to meet
fetal demands.

Pregnancy, Birth, and Lactation — Student Notes

1. Hormone Levels During Pregnancy

 hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)

o Secreted by preembryo early in pregnancy.
o Placenta begins secreting hCG at 10–12 weeks.
 Estrogen
o Secreted by placenta.
o Levels rise substantially by end of pregnancy.
o Promotes mitosis and tissue growth in mother
and fetus.
 Progesterone
o Secreted by placenta.
o Inhibits uterine contractions to maintain
pregnancy.
o Levels decline closer to labor and birth.

2. Labor and Childbirth

 Oxytocin: uterine receptors increase, promoting

contractions.
 Three stages of labor:
1. Dilation Stage – cervix opens and thins; fetal
head descends; driven by oxytocin-induced
uterine contractions.
2. Expulsion Stage – fetus passes through cervix
and vaginal canal; baby is delivered.
3. Placental Stage – uterus continues contracting;
placenta expelled.