Course 8

Body Structures, Functions, and Related Health Issues

 Read chapters 30, 32, 33, and 35 (all)
Course 8 Ch 6 (Review supporting clients with illness and disability)
Readings Ch 17 ( Review in context of care implications)
Ch 18 (Review in context of care implications)
Body Structures, Ch 19 (Review infection control)
Functioning, and Ch 20 (Review preventing falls)
Related Health Issues Ch 23 (Review Promoting comfort and well being, pain and its
impact on client’s well being)
Ch 25 (Review)
Ch 26 (Review documentation and reporting)
Ch 27 (Special diets, fluid balance)
Ch 28 (Enteral nutrition)
Ch 34 (Hearing impairment, glaucoma, cataracts)
Ch 36 (Epilepsy)
Ch 28 (Dementia)
 Basic Human Anatomy and
Module 1 Physiology
LO 8.1 Identify terminology related to the
structure and function of the body
Anatomy is the study of body structures.
Physiology is the study of how the body structures work.
Understanding normal function will help you understand
and identify changes in the body.
Anatomical position: body standing erect, with face
forward
Homeostasis is a steady state or stable internal
environment maintained when all the organ systems
work together
Cells - The basic unit of body structure is the cell
Tissues- Groups of cells with similar functions combine to form
tissues.
 The body has four basic types of tissue:
Epithelial tissue covers internal and external body
surfaces.
Connective tissue anchors, connects, and supports
other tissues.
Muscle tissue stretches and contracts to let the body
move.
Nerve tissue receives and carries impulses to the
brain and back to body parts
Organs- Groups of tissue with the same function form organs
Organ Systems -Systems are formed by organs that work together
to perform special functions.
Reminder Homeostasis is a steady state or stable internal
environment maintained when all the organ systems work together
Illness –the loss of physical or mental health
Acute illness- comes on quickly and lasts for a relatively
short period
Chronic illness- is ongoing, slow or gradual in onset, and
may or may not grow worse over time. Cannot be cured
Disability- the loss of physical or mental functioning. May be
acute or chronic
Co-morbidity- the presence of 2 more illnesses/disabilities at
the same time.
 Body Functioning and Implication to
Module 2 Care
Musculoskeletal
System
Integumentary
system LO. 8.2 The learner will discuss the care
Respiratory System implications based on the body’s structure and
Circulatory System function and common health related issues
Nervous System
Immune System
Endocrine System
Digestive System
Urinary System
Reproductive System
 Function
It lets the body move.
It protects and gives the body shape.
It consists of bones (206 bones), muscles, ligaments, tendons,
and cartilage.
It is made of bones, muscles, ligaments, tendons and cartilage
Musculoskeleta There are five types of bones:
l System Long bones bear the body’s weight. Eg. Femur, radius
Short bones allow skill and ease in movement. Eg. Wrist
and ankles
Flat bones protect the organs. Eg. Skull, pelvic bone,
Bones scapulae, sternum, ribs
Irregular bones allow various degrees of movement and
flexibility. Hip bones, vertebrae
Sesamoid bones are short and irregular and protect
tendons. Eg. patella
 Joint is the point at which two or more bones meet.
Joints allow movement
Cartilage is connective tissue that cushions the joint so
Musculoskeleta
bones don’t rub together
Synovial membrane lines the joint and secretes synovial fluid
l System (lubricates the joint)
Tendons- Connect your muscles to your bones, using
Joints strong, connective tissue. When muscles contract (shorten),
tendons at each end of the muscle cause the bone to move.
Ligaments- are strong bands of connective tissue that hold
bones together at the joint.
 An important type of joint is a synovial joint
Synovial Joints allow movement and flexibility
The type of movement and degree of flexibility vary with each
type of synovial joint
There are 6 types of synovial joints
Musculoskeleta
l System Ball-and-socket joint
Hinge joint
Saddle joint
Gliding joint
Pivot joint Condyloid joint
Joints Ball-and-socket joints allow movement in all directions. The
rounded end on one side, fits into the cavity on the other. These
joints can be easily displaced because of their wide range of
movement. Hips and shoulders are ball-and socket joints.

Hinge joints allow movement in one direction around a single

axis. Elbows, knees, and fingers are hinge joints.
 More than 600 muscles in the human body

Muscles have three functions:

Movement of body parts
Maintenance of posture
Production of body heat

Musculoskeleta Three types of muscles are:

l System Skeletal (striated) muscles – the muscles attached to
the bones are striated (look striped or streaked).
Their movement is voluntary. Found in arms and
Muscles legs, etc.
Smooth muscles – smooth appearance (not
striated). They are involuntary. Found in stomach,
intestines, blood vessels, etc.
Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. It appears
striated but is involuntary
 Musculoskeletal system disorders affect bones, joints,
muscles, and the ability to move
Signs and symptoms of ineffective functioning include:
Complaints of pain and discomfort when moving or being
moved
Unable to weight bare
Increased risk of fractures
Musculoskeleta Anger and frustration due to lack of activity and decreased
l System mobility
Contractures
Increased falls
Ineffective Functioning
Muscle atrophy- Can affect any part of the body.
Apraxia of speech is the inability to correctly move (praxia) the
muscles used to speak.
Dysphagia- difficulty (dys) swallowing (phagia) often due to
muscle weakness in the mouth, pharynx, etc.
 Arthritis- means joint (arthr) inflammation (itis). It is the
most common joint disease.
Inflammation means swelling, redness, heat, and pain
Pain and decreased mobility occur in the affected joints
It can occur in people of all ages
Musculoskeleta Two most common types of arthritis is:
l System Osteoarthritis- joint cartilage wears away. Age, obesity
and sedentary lifestyle are most common causes of OA.
Pain is worse less severe in morning and worsens

Arthritis
throughout day. Joints become stiff, swollen, and painful.
Spurs develop, changing the shape of the bone and joint.
 Rheumatoid – RA Affects people of all ages. It affects
the connective tissue in the body. The immune system
attacks the tissue. It is mainly the joints affected, but the
tissue in the heart, lungs, eyes, kidneys and skin can all
be destroyed.
 OA
RA
1. Relieving pain and
stiffness 1. Maintain joint motion
2. Heat or cold 2. Control pain
applications. Report 3. Prevent deformities
need to nurse. Observe
outcomes 4. Rest balanced with
CCA Role in
exercise
3. Wt loss through low fat
and low calorie diet 5. ROM exercises
Treatment - Client may need to use a
walker or cane (assistive
6. Meds for pain or
inflammation. Report
devices). Encourage them c/o pain
- Client may need assistance 7. Hot or cold applications.
with ADL’s Report need to nurse.
Report outcomes.
- Elevated toilet seats are
helpful for client’s with - Some clients may need
limited ROM in the hips walking aids or splints
and knees
 - Osteoporosis is a bone d/o in which the bones become porous
and brittle and break easily
- Bones of the spine, hips, and wrist are mostly affected
- Common in older adults and post menopausal women
- After menopause, ovaries stop producing estrogen, which
Musculoskeleta results in bone changes

l System - Lack of dietary Ca is also a major cause

- For bone to form properly, it must continually bear wt. If not,
Ca is not absorbed and bones become brittle and porous
Osteoporosis - Back pain, gradual loss of ht, and stooped posture can occur
(kyphosis)
- Fractures are a great risk. Sometimes bones are so brittle that
the slightest activity, such as turning in bed, can cause a
fracture
 There is no cure for osteoporosis, so prevention is key
-Wt bearing exercises (walking, jogging)
- Some clients with osteoporosis wear a back brace or use
CCA Role in
walking aids

Treatment
- Protect the client from falls and accidents. Transfer, turn,
and reposition the client gently
Diet must contain Ca and Vit D
Smoking, high alcohol intake, lack of exercise, prolonged bed
rest and immobility are all risk factors. Encourage and
support client to quit smoking, drinking and being sedentary,
while promoting exercise and mobility.
 - A break in the bone and tissues around the
fracture, including muscles, bld vessels, nerves, and
tendons are injured

Musculoskeleta - They can be opened/compound, which means the

broken bone breaks through the skin
l System
- They can be closed/simple, which means the
broken bone did not break through the skin
Fractures - Fractures are usually caused by falls and other
accidents
- They can also occur when the bones are weakened
by diseases such as osteoporosis
 S&S of a fracture:
1. Limb appearing bent or out of position
2. Pain
3. Edema
Fractures 4. Limited movement of limb or loss of function
5. Bruising and color changes in the skin at the
fracture site
6. Bleeding (internal or external)
 Casts- Observe and report:
1. Pain warns of a pressure ulcer, poor circulation,
or nerve damage
2. Edema and a tight cast, numbness, pale skin, or
cyanosis are all signs of reduced bld flow to the
area

Treatment 3. Numbness or inability to move fingers or toes – a

sign of pressure on a nerve
4. Temperature changes on the skin – cool skin
means poor circulation; hot skin means
inflammation
5. Chills, fever, N&V, odor, drainage under the cast
may signal an infection under the cast
6. Assist with ADL’s as needed
 Hip fractures are common in older adults, especially older
women
- Two signs of a fractured hip are: A) Shortening of the affected
leg and B) outward rotation of the affected leg
- They are a serious concern b/c they heal more slowly
Musculoskeleta - The client may require a hip replacement surgery
l System - The client is put at risk of life-threatening post op
complications such as:
Hip A) Pneumonia
Replacement B) UTI’s
C) Thrombi
D) Pressure ulcers
E) Constipation
F) Confusion
 Caring for a Client with a Hip Fracture or hip replacement:
1. Keep the affected leg abducted (away from the median
plane) at all times. Use abduction pillows
2. Prevent external rotation (turning outward) of the hip. Use
trochanter rolls
3. Provide ROM as directed
Hip 4. Provide a straight backed chair with armrests and is firm
Replacement 5. Position chair on the client’s unaffected side to transfer
them
6. Do not let the client stand on the affected leg unless
directed by the MD
7. Support and elevate the leg while client is sitting in a chair
8. Remind the client not to cross their legs
9. Ensure you assist with ADL’s while being gentle with
positioning
 - Amputation is the removal of all or part of an
extremity
- Traumatic amputation – occurs by accident
- Surgical amputation – performed when a body part
has been severely damaged due to an accident or to
Musculoskeleta treat or prevent a disease
l system - Gangrene – a condition in which there is tissue
death. Caused by an infection, frost bite, burns,
Amputation circulatory d/o. All of which interfere with bld
flow, thus, depriving tissues of oxygen and
nutrients. Poisonous substances and waste
products build up in the tissues, therefore, tissue
dies and become black, cold, and shrivelled. If
untreated, it can spread through the body and
cause death
- The most common cause of amputation is diabetes
 - All or part of the extremity can be removed
- The client may feel that the limb is still there or may c/o
pain in the amputated part. This is called phantom limb
pain
- The cause of the pain is the irritation of nerve endings in
the stump
Amputation - It can last for a short time after surgery or for many
years
- An amputation can affect the client’s whole life
including body image, ADL’s, and work
- Prosthesis – an artificial replacement for a missing body
part. Can be made for any body part
 Skin Care and Prosthesis:
- The stump is confined in the prosthesis
- Since skin is not exposed to air, it may
become hot, moist, and irritation, blisters,
and skin infections can occur
- Wash skin with warm water and soap
Treatment - Rinse with warm water and pat dry
- Notify RN STAT if client c/o pain at
prosthetic site
- Also report signs of redness, edema, or
drainage at the site
 Muscles atrophy
Strength decreases
Bones become brittle; can break easily
Effects of Aging Joints become stiff and painful
on Height gradually decreases
Musculoskeleta Mobility decreases
l System and Activity and good diet can help slow these changes
implications for Regular exercise with ROM exercises
care Assisting only as needed with ADL’s, as they considered
forms of activity
Protect clients from falls, turn and move gently, offer help
and support when walking
 Safe handling and mobility
Positioning, transferring, ambulation/mobility
Falls
Review your Restraints
understanding Body mechanics (movement)
of the following Nutrition
Range of Motion (ROM)
Personal Care
 Assisting with food (full or partial)
Supporting co-planning of meal to improve nutrition
Preparing and cooking meals
Assisting with adaptive feeding devices
Care implications
Choking prevention
Musculoskeletal
Monitoring and evaluation of changing needs/symptoms
System
Positioning and repositioning techniques
A CCA’s role in caring for Transferring techniques
clients with Applying range of motion exercises
Musculoskeletal illnesses
Ambulating
include:
Assessing client’s condition prior to care
Adapting approaches to care based on client’s needs and
condition
Understanding age related changes and how to support
health and prevent unnecessary deterioration of client’s body.