Comprehensive Computer Networking Study Guide

1. Network Performance & Fundamentals

(Sources: Lecture 1, 2, 3)

• Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching:

◦ Packet Switching: Data is broken into chunks (packets). Resources are shared (Statistical Multiplexing).
There is no call setup. It is efficient but can cause queuing delay and loss.

◦ Circuit Switching: A dedicated path and resources (frequency/time slots) are established before
transmission. Performance is guaranteed, but bandwidth is wasted during silent periods.

▪ FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): Frequency spectrum divided into bands.

▪ TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): Time divided into slots.

• Types of Delay (dnodal ):

1. Processing Delay (dproc ): Time to check bit errors and determine the output link.

2. Queuing Delay (dqueue ): Time waiting for the output link to become available. Depends on congestion.

3. Transmission Delay (dtrans ): Time to push bits onto the link.

▪ Formula: L/R(Packet lengthL/ Link BandwidthR).

4. Propagation Delay (dprop ): Time to travel the physical medium.

▪ Formula: d/s(Distanced/ Speeds).

• Throughput: The rate (bits/sec) at which bits are transferred. The end-to-end throughput is constrained by
the bottleneck link (the link with the lowest speed).

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2. Application Layer
(Sources: Lecture 4, 5, 6)

• Application Architectures:

◦ Client-Server: Server is always-on with a permanent IP. Clients do not communicate directly (e.g., Web,
Email).

◦ Peer-to-Peer (P2P): Peers communicate directly. It is self-scalable but difficult to manage (e.g.,
BitTorrent).

• Key Protocols:

◦ HTTP (Web - Port 80):

▪ Type: Pull protocol. Stateless. Uses TCP.

 ▪ Non-Persistent: Opens a new TCP connection for each object. Response time = 2 RTT + Transmission
per object.

▪ Persistent: Multiple objects sent over a single TCP connection. Pipelining allows sending all requests at
once (1 RTT for all objects).

▪ Cookies: Used to maintain user state (sessions) because HTTP is stateless. Involves 4 components:
Cookie header in request, Set-cookie header in response, user file, and backend database.

▪ Proxy Server (Web Cache): Satisfies client requests without involving the origin server to reduce
response time and traffic.

◦ SMTP (Email - Port 25):

▪ Type: Push protocol. Uses TCP.

▪ Function: Transfers mail between mail servers. (User agents use POP/IMAP to retrieve mail).

▪ Process: Handshake (HELO) → Transfer → Closure. Uses 7-bit ASCII encoding.

◦ DNS (Domain Name System):

▪ Function: Maps Hostnames ([Link]) to IP addresses.

▪ Hierarchy: Root Servers → TLD Servers (e.g., .com) → Authoritative Servers (e.g., [Link]).

▪ Protocol: Uses UDP for fast queries.

◦ DASH (Streaming):

▪ Dynamic, Adaptive Streaming over HTTP.

▪ Server: Divides video into chunks encoded at different rates.

▪ Client: Periodically measures bandwidth and requests the highest quality chunk it can handle.

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3. Transport Layer
(Sources: Lecture 7, 8)

• Function: Provides logical communication between processes running on different hosts.

• Multiplexing/Demultiplexing:

◦ UDP (Connectionless): Demux uses a 2-tuple (Dest IP, Dest Port).

◦ TCP (Connection-Oriented): Demux uses a 4-tuple (Source IP, Source Port, Dest IP, Dest Port).

• UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

◦ Unreliable, unordered, lightweight. No connection setup.

 ◦ Checksum: Used for error detection. Sender adds 16-bit integers and takes the 1's complement. Receiver
adds all words (including checksum); result must be all 1s.

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

◦ Reliable, in-order byte stream. Connection-oriented (3-way handshake).

◦ Flow Control: Prevents overflowing the Receiver's buffer. The receiver advertises the rwnd (Receive
Window) value in the segment header.

◦ Congestion Control: Prevents overloading the Network. Uses cwnd (Congestion Window).

▪ Phases: Slow Start (exponential growth), Congestion Avoidance (linear growth).

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4. Network Layer
(Sources: Lecture 9)

• Planes:

◦ Data Plane (Forwarding): Local action. Moving packets from router input to appropriate router output.

◦ Control Plane (Routing): Network-wide logic. Determining the route/path from source to destination.

• Router Architecture:

◦ Switching Fabrics:

1. Memory: CPU copies packet (Slowest).

2. Bus: Shared bus (Bandwidth limited).

3. Crossbar: Interconnection network (Fastest).

◦ Longest Prefix Matching: When forwarding, the router matches the destination IP to the table entry with
the longest matching sequence of leading bits.

• IP Addressing:

◦ Subnet: Device interfaces with the same subnet part of the IP address that can physically reach each other
without a router.

◦ CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing (a.b.c.d/x). The /x is the subnet mask length.

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5. Data Link Layer

(Sources: Lecture 10)

• Function: Node-to-node transfer over a link. Encapsulates datagrams into Frames.

• Sub-layers:

1. LLC (Logical Link Control): Flow control, error messages.

2. MAC (Media Access Control): Hardware addressing, media access.

• Error Detection:

◦ Parity: 1D (detects single bit error) and 2D (detects and corrects single bit error).

◦ CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): Uses binary division (XOR operations).

▪ Steps: Append k−1zeros to data→Divide by GeneratorG using XOR → Remainder is the CRC.

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6. Physical Layer
(Sources: Lecture 2)

• Guided Media: Twisted Pair (Copper), Coaxial cable, Fiber Optic (Light pulses, high speed, low error).

• Unguided Media: Radio waves (WiFi, Cellular).

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7. Security
(Sources: Lecture 3, 4)

• Malware:

◦ Virus: Requires user interaction and a host file.

◦ Worm: Standalone, self-replicating, requires no user interaction.

• Encryption:

◦ TCP/UDP do not provide encryption.

◦ SSL (Secure Socket Layer): Application layer protocol used to provide encryption, data integrity, and
authentication (HTTPS).

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Essential Calculations for Exams

1. HTTP Response Time (RTT Calculation)

• Scenario: Downloading a Base HTML file + N embedded images.

• Assumption: Initial connection + Base file = 2 RTT.

• Non-Persistent (No Parallel): 2 RTT+(N×2 RTT).

• Non-Persistent (With Parallel Batches): 2 RTT+(Number of Batches×2 RTT).

• Persistent (Non-Pipelined): 2 RTT+(N×1 RTT).

• Persistent (Pipelined): 2 RTT+1 RTT (All small objects sent at once).

2. Transmission Time

•dtrans =R (Rate in bits/sec)L (Packet Size in bits)

• Tip: Watch for units! 1 Byte = 8 bits. 1 Mbps = 106 bits/sec.

3. Propagation Time

•dprop =s (Speed)d (Distance)

4. CRC Calculation (Binary Division)

• Perform XOR subtraction (same as addition without carry).

• If Data = 101110 and Generator (G) = 1001 (4 bits):

1. Append 3 zeros (length of G−1) to Data: 101110000.

2. Divide 101110000 by 1001.

3. The Remainder is the CRC.

1. Layer Functions (Internet Protocol Stack)

1. Application Layer

• Functions: Supports network applications and user software. It allows processes on different hosts to
communicate by exchanging messages. It handles protocols for specific tasks like email, file transfer, and web
browsing.

• Key Services: Web pages (HTTP), Email (SMTP), Name translation (DNS), Streaming (DASH).

2. Transport Layer

• Functions: Provides logical communication between processes running on different hosts.

• Key Services:

◦ Multiplexing/Demultiplexing: Gathering data from multiple sockets or delivering data to the correct
socket.

◦ Reliable Data Transfer (TCP): Ensures data is delivered without error and in order.

◦ Flow Control: Prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver (using rwnd).
 ◦ Congestion Control: Prevents the sender from overwhelming the network.

3. Network Layer

• Functions: Provides logical communication between hosts. It is responsible for moving datagrams from
source to destination.

• Key Services:

◦ Forwarding (Data Plane): Moving packets from a router's input to the appropriate output.

◦ Routing (Control Plane): Determining the route/path taken by packets from source to destination.

◦ Addressing: Assigning unique IP addresses to interfaces.

4. Data Link Layer

• Functions: Responsible for transferring data (frames) between physically adjacent (neighboring) network
nodes over a link.

• Key Services:

◦ Framing: Encapsulating network packets into frames.

◦ Addressing: Using Hardware/MAC addresses.

◦ Error Control: Detecting and correcting bit errors (using CRC or Parity).

◦ Flow Control: Matching speed between stations on the same link.

◦ Media Access Control (MAC): Controlling access to the physical medium.

5. Physical Layer

• Functions: Responsible for moving bits "on the wire". It converts the data stream into signals to be sent
over physical media (guided or unguided).

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2. Abbreviations & Meanings

Network Types & Infrastructure

• PAN: Personal Area Network

• LAN: Local Area Network

• CAN: Campus Area Network

• MAN: Metropolitan Area Network

• WAN: Wide Area Network

• WLAN: Wireless Local Area Network

• WWAN: Wireless Wide Area Network

• ISP: Internet Service Provider

• DSL: Digital Subscriber Line

• DSLAM: Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer

• NIC: Network Interface Card

Application Layer

• HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

• SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

• FTP: File Transfer Protocol

• DNS: Domain Name System

• P2P: Peer-to-Peer

• URL: Unified Resource Locator

• HTML: Hypertext Markup Language

• POP: Post Office Protocol

• IMAP: Internet Mail Access Protocol

• SSL: Secure Socket Layer

• CDN: Content Distribution Network

• DASH: Dynamic, Adaptive Streaming over HTTP

• TLD: Top Level Domain

Transport Layer

• TCP: Transmission Control Protocol

• UDP: User Datagram Protocol

• RTT: Round Trip Time

• ACK: Acknowledgment

• NAK: Negative Acknowledgment

• rwnd: Receive Window

Network Layer

• IP: Internet Protocol

• CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing

• DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

• NAT: Network Address Translation

• IGP: Interior Gateway Protocol

• EGP: Exterior Gateway Protocol

• OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

• RIP: Routing Information Protocol

• BGP: Border Gateway Protocol

• HOL: Head-of-the-Line (blocking)

Data Link & Physical Layer

• MAC: Media Access Control

• LLC: Logical Link Control

• CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check

• FDM: Frequency Division Multiplexing

• TDM: Time Division Multiplexing

• GSM: Global System for Mobile communication

General/Other

• OSI: Open Systems Interconnection

• ISO: International Organization for Standardization

• FSM: Finite State Machine

• DDoS: Distributed Denial of Service

• CBR: Constant Bit Rate

• VBR: Variable Bit Rate