THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system consists of the sun and its eight planets that include: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
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and Neptune. The diagram below illustrates the solar system.

Figure 1: Arrangement of planets in solar system

Planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits

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The light of the sun falls on each of the planets
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The planets reflect the light
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The planets do not produce light of their own
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All the energy of the solar system is derived from the sun
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Some like Earth, Jupiter and Saturn have small celestial bodies known as satellites in orbit around them.
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The moon is earth’s satellite.
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Each planet takes its own time to complete its orbit around the sun.
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This is because their distances from the sun vary.
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Earth takes 365¼ days to complete its orbit around the sun.
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Mercury completes its orbit in 88 days.
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And the moon takes 27 days to revolve around the earth.
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 SHAPE AND SIZE OF THE EARTH
At one time the earth was thought to be flat but today we all know that it is round, almost a sphere as shown in the satellite
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picture below:

Figure 2: Satellite picture showing Earth’s spherical shape

It has an equatorial circumference of 40084km

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Its polar circumference is less by 133km
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Its equatorial diameter is 12761km
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Its polar diameter is short by 42km
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This shows that the earth is not a perfect sphere It is a little flattened at the poles It can in fact be called a Geod.
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EVIDENCE THAT THE EARTH IS SPHERICAL
Aerial photographs: photographs taken by satellites at great distances from the earth all show that the earth is spherical in
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shape (Figure 1).

The lunar eclipse: when there is an eclipse of the moon, the shadow of the earth cast onto the moon is always curved as shown
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in diagram below:

Figure 3: Earth’s curved shadow on the moon

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 Circumnavigation of the earth: the earth has been circumnavigated several times by land sea, and air as illustrated
by the fig. 4 below.

Figure 4: Circumnavigation of the earth

Sunrise and sunset: because the earth rotates from east to west, it gives rise to sunrise and sunset and which means places
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in the east see the sun before places in the west.

If the earth were flat, the whole world would have sunrise and sunset at the same time. But this is not so. As shown in the
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diagram below, the sun sets and rises at different times for different places.

Figure 5: Different times for sunset and sunrise

Curved horizon: the distant horizon when seen from the deck of a ship at sea, or from a cliff on land is always and
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everywhere curved. This curved horizon widens with increasing altitude.

Ship’s visibility: when a ship is approaching from a distant horizon, the top of the mast is seen first before the main
body. Equally, when it leaves harbor, the main body will disappear first before the mast. If the earth were flat, the

entire ship would be seen or obscured all at once. The diagram below illustrates:

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 Figure 6: The visibilit y of an approaching ship

▪ Other planetary bodies are spherical: all observations from telescopes reveal that the planetary bodies are spherical in
shape.

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

Latitude

Refers to angular distance north or south of the equator

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Lines of latitude are also known as parallels of latitude
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The equator is given the value of zero degrees
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Figure 7: Important lines of latitude

The most important lines of latitude are:

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the Equator 0°
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the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N)
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he Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S), the Arctic Circle (66½°N) and the Antarctic Circle (66½°S).
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The north pole has a latitude of 90° north
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And the south pole has a latitude of 90° south
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Every place on the earth’s surface has a latitude of so many degrees north or south of the equator

Longitude

Longitude is angular distance measured in degrees east or west of the prime meridian
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Lines of longitude are also called Meridians of longitude
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On the globe longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles that run from pole to pole The prime meridian is the
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central line of longitude.

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 Figure 8: Meridians of longitude
LOCATION OF PLACES ON THE GLOBE USING LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
To locate places on the Globe, imaginary lines have been drawn on the globe.
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One set running east and west, parallel to the equator, are called lines of latitude.
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The other set runs north and south passing through the poles and are called lines of longitude.
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The intersection of latitude and longitude pin-points any place on the Earth's surface. In the diagram below,
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Washington D. C’s location is 39°North and 77°West.

Figure 9: How to locate places on the globe using latitude and longitude

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE USING LATITUDE

Each degree of latitude is approximately 111 kilometers. We can therefore use this value to calculate distances

between places whose latitude is given.

Example 1:

The distance in kilometers between Tropic of cancer and Equator is calculated as follows:

Tropic of Cancer latitude= 23½°N =23.5°

Equator latitude= 0°

Distance in kilometers between Tropic of Cancer and Equator

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 =23.5°-0° = 23.5°*111km = 2,608.5km

Example 2:

The distance in kilometers between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn is calculated as below:

Tropic of Cancer latitude = 23½°N =23.5°N Tropic of Capricorn latitude= 23½°s = 23.5S Distance between
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the two:

23.5°N + 23.5°S = 47° x 111km = 5217km

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RULE: Same hemisphere SUBTRACT the latitudes. Different hemispheres ADD the latitudes.
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ROTATION OF THE EARTH
The Earth's rotation refers to its spinning motion around its axis. A full rotation of 360° is completed in 24 hours.

This means that the earth rotates through 15° in 1 hour, or 1° in 4 minutes.

The rotation of the earth causes the following:

day and night.

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a difference of 1 hour between two meridians 15° apart.
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the deflection of winds and ocean currents. the daily rising and falling of tides.
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The following diagram shows how rotation of the earth causes day and night.

Figure 10: How rotation of the earth c auses day and night

LONGITUDE AND TIME LOCAL TIME.

Earth makes one complete rotation of 360° in one day or 24 hours, It passes through 15° in 1hour or 1° in 4
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minutes.

The Earth rotates from west to east,

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For every 15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced by 1hour. Conversely, if we go westwards, local time is
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retarded by 1hour.

Therefore, places east of Greenwich see the Sun earlier and gain time, whereas places west of Greenwich see
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the Sun later and lose time.

If we know GMT, to find local time, we merely have to add or subtract the difference in the number of hours
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from the given longitude.

A simple memory aid for this will be East-Gain-Add (E. G. A.) and West- LoseSubtract (W. L. S.)
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 HOW TO CALCULATE LOCAL TIME FROM LONGITUDE AND GMT.
Example 1:

The longitude of Harare (Zimbabwe), is 31°E, GMT longitude is 0°

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The difference in longitude between Harare and GMT is 31° (31°- 0°) The difference in longitude = 31°/15°
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= 2hrs 4 minutes = 2:04 hrs.

If GMT is 08:00hrs, then Harare local time is 10:04hrs because Harare is ahead of GMT
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i.e. 08:00hrs + 2:04hrs = 10:04hrs

HOW TO CALCULATE LONGITUDE FROM LOCAL TIME AND GMT?

Example 2:

The local time at X is 16:00hrs and GMT is 14:00hrs

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The difference in time between X and GMT = 2hrs
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Difference in longitude = 2 x 15° = 30°
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Since the local time at X is ahead of GMT, X is east of GMT Therefore, the longitude of X is 30°E.
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STANDARD TIME AND TIME ZONES
The time for any place depends on its meridian of longitude.
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A country like Zambia, for instance, stretching from approximately 22°E to 33°E, that is a difference in
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longitude of over 11° would have different times for its people.

To avoid this inconvenience, the world is divided into 24 zones 15°apart.

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These are called time zones.
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The central meridian of longitude in each zone is used to calculate time for that zone. This time is called
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standard time

Figure 11: World time zones

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 THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
The international date line follows meridian
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180° except where it crosses land surfaces as shown
in the fig. 12.

It is the line where a day is lost or gained upon

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crossing it.

Fig. 13 illustrates what happens when two

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travelers set off at the same time, say,

1600hrs, on a Monday from a place A

(longitude 0°).

Figure 12: The International Dateline

One traveler goes westwards to a place and

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another goes eastwards to a place B (longitude 180°).

The traveler going westwards

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calculates the local times at 90 and 180 to be 1000hrs
Monday 0400hrs Monday respectively.

Figure 13: Loss and gain of time

The traveler going eastwards calculates the local time at 90°E and 180°W to be 2200hrs Monday and 0400hrs
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Tuesday respectively.

In theory, along meridian 180° it is both 0400hrs Monday and 0400hrs Tuesday.
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The traveler going west crosses this meridian and finds that it is 0400hrs Tuesday i.e. one day has been lost.
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The traveler going east crosses this meridian and finds that it is 0400hrs Monday i.e. one day has been gained.
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REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
When the earth revolves round the sun, it travels in its elliptical
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orbit at a speed of 30km per second.

One complete revolution takes 365¼ days which is the period

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of one year.

A normal year is taken to be 365 days and an extra day is added

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every four years as a leap year. A leap year has 366 days and
the month of February has 29 days.

Figure 14: Revolution of the earth

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 The revolution of the earth and the inclination of its axis results in: a) seasons
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b) changes in the altitude of the mid-day sun of different times of the year.
c) Varying length of day and night at different times of the year.

THE ALTITUDE OF THE MID-DAY SUN

The sun is vertically overheard at the equator on two days each year. These are usually 21st march and 23rd
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September. These days are called equinoxes, meaning equal nights.

After the March equinox the sun appears to move north and is vertically overheard at the Tropic of Cancer
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(23½°N) on about 21st June. This is called the June or summer solstice, when the Northern hemisphere will
have its longest day and shortest night.

By 22nd December, the sun is overheard at the Tropic of Capricorn 23½°S. This is the winter solstice when the
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southern hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest night.

Fig. 15 below shows the apparent movement of the sun between the two tropics.
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Figure 15: Apparent movement of the sun

VARYING LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT

The axis of the earth is tilted away to the vertical at angle of 23½° or 23.5° giving rise to different seasons and
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varying lengths of day and night.

CONDITIONS IN DECEMBER (NORTHEN HEMISPHERE)

In the northern hemisphere, in winter (December), the hours of darkness increase.

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At the arctic circle, (66½°N), the sun never rises and there is darkness for the whole day in mid-winter on 22
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December.

Beyond the arctic circle the number of days with complete darkness increases, until we reach the north pole
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(90°N) when half the year will have darkness.

CONDITIONS IN DECEMBER (SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE)

In the southern hemisphere, in summer (December), the hours of daylight increase.

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At the Antarctic circle, (66½°), the sun never sets and there is daylight for the whole day in mid-winter on 22nd
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December.

Beyond the arctic circle the number of days with complete daylight increases, until we reach the south pole
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(90°S) when half the year will have daylight. These December conditions are illustrated in fig. 16.

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 Figure 16: December conditions

CONDITIONS IN JUNE (NORTHERN HEMISPHERE)

On 21st June, fig. 17, the sun is overheard at noon along the Tropic of Cancer, and parallels of latitude in the northern

hemisphere have their longest day of the year. At this time the length of day increases as the latitude increases north

of the equator until there continuous daylight north of the arctic circle.

CONDITIONS IN JUNE (SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE)

South of the equator, the length of day decreases with increasing latitude until there is continuous darkness south of

the Antarctic circle. Places in the southern hemisphere will have their shortest day of the year. Figure 1-16 below

illustrates this situation.

Figure 17: June conditions

in the foregoing diagrams, the shaded part represents night. The length of day and night for a particular latitude can

be found by comparing the length of the shaded part to that of the non-shaded part.

ANGLE OF ELEVATION OF THE MID-DAY SUN

The angle of elevation of the mid-day sun in varies depending on the observer's location and the time of year.
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At the equator, during the equinoxes (around March 21st and September 21st), the sun is directly overhead at
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noon, resulting in a 90° angle of elevation. This means that the sun appears at its highest point in the sky.

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 As you move away from the equator towards the poles, the angle of elevation of the mid-day sun decreases.
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This is because the sun's rays strike the Earth's surface at a more oblique angle.

During the summer solstice (around June 21st in the Northern Hemisphere and December 21st in the Southern
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Hemisphere), the angle of elevation of the mid-day sun is highest at its respective hemisphere's Tropic of Cancer
(Northern Hemisphere) or Tropic of Capricorn (Southern Hemisphere). Beyond these latitudes, the angle of
elevation decreases as you move closer to the poles.

Conversely, during the winter solstice, the angle of elevation of the mid-day sun is lowest at its respective
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hemisphere's Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of Capricorn. Again, beyond these latitudes, the angle of elevation
decreases as you move towards the poles.

HOW TO CALCULATE THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION OF THE MID-DAY

SUN This is easily done using the following formula: L=D + (90°- E)

Where:

L = latitude (the latitude of the place for which the angle of elevation of the midday sun is being calculated.
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D = declination (latitude of the overhead sun) E = angle of elevation
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Example 1:

Calculate the angle of elevation of the midday sun for Milan 46°N on 21st June.

Substituting in the formula:

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L = D + (90° - E)
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46° = 23.5° + (90°- E)
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46° = 23.5° + 90°- E
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46°= 113.5 - E
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46° - 113.5 = -E
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-67.5°/- = -E/- 67.5° = E = 67½°
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By changing the subject of the formula, all variables in the equation can be calculated.

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