Part II.

2013 5 2 , 2014 7 6 , 2021 7 26

( 3 )
[1]
(1)
(2) ( )

(2017 )

3 2
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.2 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.4 ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4.1 ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4.2 ( ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.5 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.7 ( ), ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.8 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.10 ( ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.11 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
∁
3.12 ∪, ∩, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

A 23

B 25

C 26
C.1 ⊔ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
C.2 ( ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
C.3 (,) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
C.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
C.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

1
 C.4 vs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

D 29
D.1 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
D.2 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3
3.1
Cantor (Georg Ferdinand
1
Ludwig Philipp Cantor, 1845–1918) ( )
(
(naive set theory))
,
(Zermelo-Frenkel set theory) (
) [2]

3.2 ,
(set) 1
0 ( )
A, B, . . .
A A element

a A (a is an element of A) ∈

a∈A ( A ∋ a)

a A , “a belongs to A”, “a is in A”, “a lies in A”

A a , a A , “A includes a”, “A contains a”

3.1 ( vs. ) ( )
( ) a∈A
A a a A a A
A a
a A

1
Cantor 1874 1878
“ ” 1

2
 a∈A ( a A , a A ,
¬(a ∈ A) )
a ̸∈ A ( A ̸∋ a)

3.2 ( N, Z, Q, R, C)
N ( ) ( natural numbers
n )
Z ( Zahl ( Zahlen)
Z )
Q ( (quotient) q
rational numbers, irrational numbers
(ratio) )
R ( real numbers r
)
C ( complex numbers c
imaginary numbers )
( (C
— nombre complexe)
)
\
R\Q
√ √
−1+ 3i −1+ 3i
3.3 1 ∈ N, −1 ̸∈ N, −1 ∈ Z, 3
2
̸∈ Z, 3
2
∈ Q, π ̸∈ Q, π ∈ R, 2
̸∈ R, 2
∈ C.
a a∈A a ̸∈ A

3.4

3.5

γ !
X
n
1
γ = lim − log n
n→∞
k=1
k
( ) γ (γ ∈ Q)
(γ ∈ R \ Q γ ̸∈ Q) (2016 4 )
(Mathematica EulerGamma γ=
0.5772156649 · · · ) Q
(

3.6 [3] “x ∈ A” A x (x which belongs

to A — ∈A )

3
 x∈A x∈B

A x x B
2
1

3.3

1+1=2
1+1 2
 
3.7 ( ) A B

(♯) ∀x ((x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A))

( x (x ∈ A x ∈ B) (x ∈ B x ∈ A) )
A B A=B
(♯) ⇔

∀x(x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B)

A=B (A B ) A ̸= B
 
( : p⇔q (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p) )
[3] A B

x∈A⇔x∈B

“∀x”
def.
3.8 ( ⇔ )
def.
A=B ⇔ ∀x(x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B)
def.
⇔
(· · · ⇔ · · · )
(define) 2

2
( ) 1

4
 
3.9 ( )

(1) A = A

(2) A = B ⇒ B = A

(3) A = B ∧ B = C ⇒ A = C
 
p p⇔p x x∈A⇔x∈A
A = A.
2 p, q p ⇔ q q ⇔ p x
x∈A⇔x∈B x ∈ B ⇔ x ∈ A. A=B B = A.
3 p, q, r p⇔q q⇔r p⇔r x
x∈A⇔x∈B x∈B⇔x∈C x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ C. A=B
B=C A = C.

3.4 ( )

3.4.1 ( )

(braces) { }
3

A 1, 2, 3

A = {1, 2, 3}

{1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1} = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3} .

( )
N

N = {1, 2, 3, · · · }

“· · · ”

3.10 A = {1, 2, 3} 1 ∈ A. 4 ̸∈ A.
( ) (2 )
1

A = {7}.
4
1 (singleton)
a {a}
3

5
 3.11 ( {} ) a a
{a}, {a} {{a}}, · · ·

[{(1 + 2) × 3 + 4} × 5 + 6] × 7 + 8
( ), { }, [ ]
{} {}

{}
( {(1 + 2) × 3 + 4}
13 {13} )

3.4.2 ( )

(x ) P (x) x {x | P (x)}
A 1 3

A = {x | x 1 3 }

B = {x | x }

{x | P (x)} {x; P (x)} {x : P (x)}

x

{x | x ∈ R ∧ x ≥ 0} = {y | y ∈ R ∧ y ≥ 0} .

{1, 2, 3} = {x | x ∈ N ∧ x ≤ 3} = {x | x ∈ Z ∧ 0.4 < x < 3.2} = {x | x = 1 ∨ x = 2 ∨ x = 3} .

(braces) { }
{ }
{ }

( ) ( ) parénthesis, { } braces, [ ] bráckets.

P (x) ∧ Q(x) ∧ (and, )

∧ ,

{x | P (x) ∧ Q(x)} = {x | P (x), Q(x)} .

{1, 2, 3} = {x | x 1 3 }
= {x | x ∈ N ∧ 1 ≤ x ≤ 3}
= {x | x ∈ N, 1 ≤ x ≤ 3} .

6
 1 P (x) x f (x) x

{y | (∃x : P (x)) y = f (x)} = {y | x (P (x) ∧ y = f (x))}

{f (x) | P (x)}

3.12 ( )

m| n m = n2

{n2 | n ∈ N}

{x | (∃n ∈ Z) x = 2n}

{2n | n ∈ Z}

2 {x | P (x) ∧ Q(x)} P (x) x ∈ A (A )

{x ∈ A | Q(x)}

{x | x ∈ A ∧ Q(x)} = {x ∈ A | Q(x)} .

3.13 ( ) x2 − x − 1 < 0
 
x|x x2 − x − 1 < 0 = x|x x2 − x − 1 < 0

= x | x ∈ R ∧ x2 − x − 1 < 0

= x|x , x2 − x − 1 < 0

= x | x ∈ R, x2 − x − 1 < 0

= x ∈ R x2 − x − 1 < 0
( √ √ )
1− 5 1+ 5
= x∈R <x<
2 2
√ √ !
1− 5 1+ 5
= , .
2 2

7
3.5 ,
 
3.14 ( , , ) A, B

∀x(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B)

A B (subset) , A B , B
A
A⊂B ( B ⊃ A)
A ⊂ B ( A B , ¬(A ⊂ B)) A ̸⊂ B
B ̸⊃ A
( )A⊂B A ̸= B A B (proper subset)

A⫋B ( B ⫌ A)

 

3.15
{1} ⊂ {1, 2}, {1, 2} ⊂ {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 3} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4}.

{1} ⊂ {1, 2} ⊂ {1, 2, 3} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4}

( 1<2<3<4 )

N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.

{x | x } ⊂ {x | x } ⊂ {x | x }.

3.16 (⊂ )

A=B ⇔ (A ⊂ B) ∧ (B ⊂ A).

A=B A⊂B ( )

{1} ⊂ {1}, {1, 2} ⊂ {1, 2}, {1, 2, 3} ⊂ {1, 2, 3},

a < b b < a : a, b (a <

b) ∧ (b < a)

a=b ⇔ (a ≤ b) ∧ (b ≤ a).

⊂ (< ) ≤
a=b a≤b ( ) 1 ≤ 2, 1 ≤ 1

B ⊂ A, B ⫋ A B⊆A( B ⫅ A), B ⊂ A

A=B ⇔ (A ⊆ B) ∧ (B ⊆ A).

( )
0

8
 
3.17 ( ) A, B, C (1), (2), (3)

(1) A ⊂ A.

(2) (A ⊂ B) ∧ (B ⊂ A) ⇒ A = B.

(3) (A ⊂ B) ∧ (B ⊂ C) ⇒ A ⊂ C.

(2) ⇒ ⇔
:

(4) (A ⊂ B) ∧ (B ⊂ A) ⇔ A = B.
 
(Cf.
(1) a ≤ a, (2) a ≤ b ∧ b ≤ a ⇒ a = b, (3) a ≤ b ∧ b ≤ c ⇒ a ≤ c, (4) a ≤ b ∧ b ≤ a ⇔ a = b
)

(1) p p⇒p x x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A.
A ⊂ A.

(2) x

• x∈A A⊂B x ∈ B.
• x∈B B⊂A x ∈ A.

∀x[(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A)]
A = B.

(3) x x∈A A⊂B x ∈ B. B ⊂C

x ∈ C.
∀x(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ C)
A ⊂ C.

(4) (2) (A = B A ⊂ B. A = B B ⊂ A.
A=B (A ⊂ B) ∧ (B ⊂ A) )
5

A = B ⇔ ∀x[(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A)]
⇔ [∀x(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B)] ∧ [∀x(x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A)]
⇔ (A ⊂ B) ∧ (B ⊂ A).

5
(∀x) P (x) ∧ Q(x) ⇔ ((∀x)P (x)) ∧ ((∀x)Q(x))

9
3.6

“ ”

 
3.18 ( ) (empty set) ∅

 
∅ ϕ ( )
0
: ϕ ∅ TEX ∅ \emptyset, ∅
\varnothing
{} (
)
(empty) ( ) A
A A
 
3.19 A A :

(1) ∅ ⊂ A.
 

A, B
def.
A⊂B ⇔ ∀x (x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B)

x x∈∅ x∈∅⇒x∈A
∅ ⊂ A.

def.
A⊂B ⇔ (∀x ∈ A) x ∈ B.

6
A B
A⊂B
(1)
(∀x ∈ ∅) x ∈ A
( )

x∈∅ x
( )

( ∀
)

6
∀x(P (x) ⇒ Q(x)) (∀x : P (x))Q(x) ∀x(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B) (∀x : x ∈
A)x ∈ B

10
 P (x) x 1

{x | P (x)} = ∅.

P (x) x

3.20 ( ) A := {x ∈ R | (∀y ∈ R)x > y} A=∅

A ̸= ∅ A x y := x + 1 y x<y
A x>y
A = ∅.

3.21 ( ) ( , 1995 )
n≥3 n n
x +y = z n n

{(x, y, z, n) | x ∈ N, y ∈ N, z ∈ N, n ∈ N, n ≥ 3, xn + y n = z n } = ∅

∩ A B
A∩B = ∅ A∩B

3.22

• ( )

• ( )

p q p

3.7 ( ), ( )
(Venn diagram)
7

11
 
3.23 ( ) A, B

A ∪ B := {x | x ∈ A x ∈ B}

A∪B A B ( , the union of two sets A and B)

(sum)
A ∩ B := {x | x ∈ A x ∈ B}
A∩B A B ( , the intersection of two sets A and B)

 
∪ (cup) , ∩ (cap)
( )

3.24 A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4}

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A ∩ B = {2, 3}.

1. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 3, 6, 7}, C = {3, 4, 5, 6} (A ∩ B) ∩ C, A ∩ (B ∩ C),

A ∩ (B ∪ C), (A ∩ B) ∪ C

3 ( )

A ∩ B ∩ C := (A ∩ B) ∩ C, A ∩ B ∩ C ∩ D := ((A ∩ B) ∩ C) ∩ D, · · ·

A ∪ B ∪ C := (A ∪ B) ∪ C, A ∪ B ∪ C ∪ D := ((A ∪ B) ∪ C) ∪ D, · · ·

( a+b+c a+b+c+d
) 4

((A ∩ B) ∩ C) ∩ D = (A ∩ B) ∩ (C ∩ D) = (A ∩ (B ∩ C)) ∩ D = A ∩ ((B ∩ C) ∩ D).

 

3.25 (1) ( ) A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

(2) ( ) A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C, A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C.

(3) ( ) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C), A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

 

12
3.8 ,
 
3.26 ( , ) A, B

{x | x ∈ A ∧ x ̸∈ B} ( {x ∈ A | x ̸∈ B} )

A B ( A B ) A\B
A−B :

A \ B = A − B := {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ̸∈ B} = {x ∈ A | x ̸∈ B} .

X X A
X \A X \A X A (complement)
A∁ ∁A :
A∁ = ∁A := X \ A = {x ∈ X | x ̸∈ A} .
X (total set), (universe)
 
( )

3.27 “difference set”

( ) A\B “the (set)
difference”, “the relative complement of B in A”, “the relative complement of B with respect
to A”, “the set-theoretic difference of A and B”

A X x∈X

x ∈ A∁ ⇔ x ̸∈ A.

( : x ∈ A∁ ⇔ x ∈ X \ A = {y | y ∈ X ∧ y ̸∈ A} ⇔ x ̸∈ A)
A B X
n o
A \ B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ̸∈ B} = x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ∁ = A ∩ B ∁ .

3.28 A A (
)
∁
A A (TPO
)

3.29 ( ( )) A B A△B

A△B := {x | x ∈ A ∪ B ∧ x ̸∈ A ∩ B} .

A△B = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).

A \ B, A∁ , A△B

13
3.9
 
3.30 ( ) a b (a, b) a
b (an ordered pair)

(a, b) = (a′ , b′ ) a = a′ ∧ b = b′
def.
⇔

A B A B A B
(direct product) (Cartesian product) A×B :

A × B = {c | (∃a ∈ A)(∃b ∈ B) c = (a, b)} .

A × B := {(a, b) | a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B} .
 
( a b
)

3.31 ( vs ) (a, b) {a, b}

(x, y) = (1, 2) ⇔ x = 1 ∧ y = 2.
(1, 2) ̸= (2, 1).
{x, y} = {1, 2} ⇔ (x = 1 ∧ y = 2) ∨ (x = 2 ∧ y = 1).
{1, 2} = {2, 1}.

3.32 ( ) a ∈ R, b ∈ R, a < b (a, b) {x ∈ R | a <

x < b} (a, b)
{x ∈ R | a < x < b}
]a, b[

]a, b[= {x ∈ R | a < x < b} ,

[a, b[= {x ∈ R | a ≤ x < b} ,
]a, b] = {x ∈ R | a < x ≤ b} .

3.33 ( ) A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5}

A × B = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5)} .

A={ , , }, B = { , }

A×B = ( , ), ( , ), ( , ),
( , ), ( , ), ( , ) .

A1 × A2 × · · · × An = {(a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) |a1 ∈ A1 , a2 ∈ A2 , · · · , an ∈ An } .

( )
A×A A 2
3

14
 3.34
R2 = R × R = {(x, y) | x ∈ R, y ∈ R} ,
R3 = R × R × R = {(x, y, z) | x ∈ R, y ∈ R, z ∈ R} .

A, B A×B

A × ∅ = ∅, ∅ × B = ∅.

3.35 × ?
A B

|A × B| = |A| × |B|

|·|
A×B 2 |A| = 3, |B| = 2 |A × B| = 6.

3.36 ( )

(2) (a, b) := {{a}, {a, b}}

(Kuratowski )

(a, b) = (a′ , b′ ) ⇔ a = a′ ∧ b = b′

0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

0 = ∅, 1 = {∅}, 2 = {∅, {∅}}, ..., n + 1 = n ∪ {n}, ...

(a, b) := {{{a}, ∅}, {{b}}}

(a, b) := {{b}, {a, b}},

(a, b) := {a, {a, b}}

( ) (2)

3.10 ( )
A A (∅ A ) (
) A (the power set of A) Pow(A), 2A

Pow(A) = 2A := {B | B ⊂ A} = {B | B A }.
8
( )
0 ⊂ 1 ⊂ 2 ⊂ 3 ⊂ ··· 0 ∈ 1 ∈ 2 ∈ 3 ∈ ··· 0⊂1
No!

15
 3.37 A = ∅
Pow(A) = 2A = {∅} .
A = {a}
Pow(A) = 2A = {∅, {a}} .
A = {a, b}
Pow(A) = 2A = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}} .
A = {a, b, c}

Pow(A) = 2A = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c, a}, {a, b, c}} .

a, b, c

3.38 a b ab (b = 2 “a square”, b = 2 “a cube”,

α
) “a to the b-th power” y=x
power function ( ) = “power”

n A Pow(A) 2n

A A

3.11 ,

A=B

(a) ∀x(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B) x∈A

x ∈ B.

(b) ∀x(x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A) x∈B

x ∈ A.

∁
3.12 ∪, ∩,
[4] ( )

16
 
3.39 X A, B, C

(1) A ∩ A = A, A ∪ A = A ( , ).

(2) A ∩ B = B ∩ A, A ∪ B = B ∪ A ( ).

(3) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C), (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) ( ).

(4) A ∩ ∅ = ∅, A ∪ ∅ = A, A ∩ X = A, A ∪ X = X.

(5) A ∩ A∁ = ∅, A ∪ A∁ = X.

(6) (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C), (A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C) ∩ (B ∪ C) ( ).

(7) (A ∪ B) ∩ A = A, (A ∩ B) ∪ A = A ( ).

(8) (A ∪ B)∁ = A∁ ∩ B ∁ , (A ∩ B)∁ = A∁ ∪ B ∁ (de Morgran ).

(9) A ∩ B = A ⇔ A ⊂ B. A ∪ B = B ⇔ A ⊂ B.
 
∁
∪, ∩,

(1) p ∧ p ≡ p, p ∨ p ≡ p

(2) p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p, p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p

(3) (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r), (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r)

(4) p ∧ F ≡ F, p ∨ F ≡ p, p ∧ T ≡ p, p ∨ T ≡ T

(5) p ∧ ¬p ≡ F( ), p ∨ ¬p ≡ T ( )

(6) (p ∨ q) ∧ r ≡ (p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ r), (p ∧ q) ∨ r ≡ (p ∨ r) ∧ (q ∨ r)

(7) (p ∨ q) ∧ p ≡ p, (p ∧ q) ∨ p ≡ p

(8) ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ (¬p) ∧ (¬p), ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ (¬p) ∨ (¬p)

 
x

x ∈ (A ∪ B)∁ ⇔ ¬(x ∈ A ∪ B)
⇔ ¬(x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B)
⇔ ¬(x ∈ A) ∧ ¬(x ∈ B)
⇔ x ∈ A∁ ∧ x ∈ B ∁
⇔ x ∈ A∁ ∩ B ∁

(A ∪ B)∁ = A∁ ∩ B ∁ .
 

(9) ( A∩B =A ⇔ A⊂B )

17
 A∩B ⊂ A (∵ x x ∈ A∩B x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B.
x ∈ A. A ∩ B ⊂ A) A∩B = A ⇔ A ⊂ A∩B A ⊂ A∩B
⇔A⊂B
(⇒) A ⊂ A ∩ B A∩B ⊂B A ⊂ B.
(⇐) A ⊂ B x x∈A A⊂B x ∈ B.
x∈A∧x∈B x ∈ A ∩ B. A ⊂ A ∩ B.

( A∪B =B ⇔ A⊂B )

A∪B =B ⇔ (A ∪ B)∁ = B ∁
⇔ (A∁ ) ∩ B ∁ = B ∁
⇔ B ∁ ⊂ A∁
⇔ A ⊂ B.

A ∪ B = B ⇔ A ⊂ B.

[3] 3.28 3.39

(1) A \ A = ∅.
∵ A \ A = A ∩ A∁ = ∅.

(2) A \ ∅ = A, ∅ \ A = ∅.
∵ A \ ∅ = A ∩ ∅∁ = A ∩ X = A, ∅ \ A = ∅ ∩ A∁ = ∅.

(4) A ∩ B ⊂ A, A ⊂ A ∪ B.
∵ p∧q ⇒p p⇒p∨q

(5) A ∩ B ⊂ A ∪ B.
∵ (4) A⊂B∧B ⊂C ⇒A⊂C

[3] 3.30 3.39

(2) A ⊂ C B⊂C A∪B ⊂C

∵ x ∈ A∪B x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B. A⊂C x ∈ C.
B⊂C x ∈ C. x ∈ C. A ∪ B ⊂ C.

(3) C ⊂ A C⊂B C ⊂A∩B

∵x∈C C⊂A x ∈ A. C⊂B x ∈ B. x ∈ A ∩ B.
C ⊂ A ∩ B.

(5) A \ (B ∪ C) = (A \ B) ∩ (A \ C), A \ (B ∩ C) = (A \ B) ∪ (A \ C).

∵ A \ (B ∪ C) = A ∩ (B ∪ C)∁ = A ∩ (B ∁ ∩ C ∁ ) = (A ∩ B ∁ ) ∩ (A ∩ C ∁ ) = (A \ B) ∩ (A \ C),
A \ (B ∩ C) = A ∩ (B ∩ C)∁ = A ∩ (B ∁ ∪ C ∁ ) = (A ∩ B ∁ ) ∪ (A ∩ C ∁ ) = (A \ B) ∪ (A \ C).

9
)
9

( )

18
 

3.40 A, B X (1), (2) (A∁ , B ∁

X )

(1) A ∩ B = ∅ ⇔ A ⊂ B ∁ .

(2) A ∪ B = X ⇔ A∁ ⊂ B.
 

(1) A ∩ B = ∅ ⇒ A ⊂ B∁ : A∩B =∅ x∈A

∁
x x∈B A∩B = ∅ x∈B .
∁
A⊂B .
A ⊂ B∁ ⇒ A ∩ B = ∅ : A ⊂ B∁ A∩B =∅
A ∩ B ̸= ∅ (∃x)x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B. x ∈ A x ∈ B∁.
x ̸∈ B. A ∩ B = ∅.

A∩B =∅ ⇔ ¬ ((∃x)x ∈ A ∩ B)
⇔ ¬ (∃x(x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B))
⇔ (∀x) (¬(x ∈ A) ∨ ¬(x ∈ B))
 
⇔ (∀x) ¬(x ∈ A) ∨ x ∈ B ∁
 
∁
⇔ (∀x) x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B
⇔ A ⊂ B∁.

(2) (1) (1)

A∪B =X ⇔ (A ∪ B)∁ = X ∁
⇔ (A∁ ) ∩ (B ∁ ) = ∅
⇔ A∁ ⊂ (B ∁ )∁
⇔ A∁ ⊂ B.

2. (1) 3.40 (2) (2) 3.40 (2) 3.40 (1)

3.13
( 10
{An | n ∈ N}

(a family of sets)
(
)

10

19
 A = {{1} , {1, 2, 3}}
2 {1} {1, 2, 3}
S T
A ( ) A, A
[
A := {x | (∃A ∈ A)x ∈ A} ,
\
A := {x | (∀A ∈ A)x ∈ A} ,
A B A = {A, B}
[ \
A := A ∪ B, A := A ∩ B

A = {{1} , {1, 2, 3}}

[
A = {1} ∪ {1, 2, 3} = {1, 2, 3} ,
\
A = {1} ∩ {1, 2, 3} = {1} .
A A1 , A2 , · · · , An A = {A1 , A2 , · · · , An }

[ [
n [
A= Ak = Ak := A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An ,
k=1 1≤k≤n

\ \
n \
A= Ak = Ak := A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An ,
k=1 1≤k≤n

Y Y
n Y
A= Ak = Ak := A1 × A2 × · · · × An .
k=1 1≤k≤n

11

n An A := {An | n ∈ N}

[ [
∞ [
A= An = An := {x | (∃n ∈ N) x ∈ An } ,
n=1 n∈N

\ \
∞ \
A= An = An := {x | (∀n ∈ N) x ∈ An } ,
n=1 n∈N

Y
∞
An = {(a1 , a2 , · · · , an , · · · ) | (∀n ∈ N) an ∈ An } .
n=1

11

20
(a1 , a2 , · · · , an , · · · ) ··· (

)
 

Λ ∀λ ∈ Λ Aλ
A := {Aλ }λ∈Λ
[ [
A= Aλ := {x |(∃λ ∈ Λ) x ∈ Aλ } ,
λ∈Λ
\ \
A= Aλ := {x |(∀λ ∈ Λ) x ∈ Aλ } .
λ∈Λ
Y Y
A= Aλ
λ∈Λ
 

[ [
n0 An 0 ⊂ An . A1 ⊂ An .
n∈N n∈N
\ \
n0 An 0 ⊃ An . A1 ⊃ An .
n∈N n∈N

3.
\
3.41 (1) {An }n∈N (∀n ∈ N) An ⊂ An+1 An = A1
n∈N

[
(2) {An }n∈N (∀n ∈ N) An ⊃ An+1 An = A1
n∈N

( )

(1) (∀n ∈\N) A1 ⊂ An \ \ x ∈ A1 (∀n ∈ N)

x ∈ An . x∈ An . A1 ⊂ An . An ⊂ A1
\ n∈N n∈N n∈N
A1 = An .
n∈N
[
(2) (∀n ∈ N) A1 ⊃ An x∈ An (∃n ∈ N)
[ n∈N \
x ∈ An . x ∈ A1 . An ⊂ A1 . A1 ⊃ An
[ n∈N n∈N
An = A1 .
n∈N

[
{An }n∈N (A1 ⊂ A2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ An ⊂ An+1 ⊂ · · · ) An
\
n∈N
{An }n∈N (A1 ⊃ A2 ⊃ · · · ⊃ An ⊃ An+1 ⊃ · · · ) An
n∈N

21
 3.42 (1) n An := (−1/n, 1/n) = {x ∈ R | −1/n < x < 1/n}

\
∞
(♯) An = {0} .
n=1

(2) n An := (−n, n) = {x ∈ R | −n < x < n}

[
∞
(♭) An = R.
n=1

 

(∀a > 0) (∀b > 0) (∃n ∈ N) na > b.

 
( (∀c > 0) (∃n ∈ N) n > c

2 )

(1) (i) x ∈ {0} x = 0. n∈N −1/n < 0 < 1/n

\ ∞
x(= 0) ∈ An . x∈ An .
n=1
\
∞
(ii) x ∈ An n∈N x ∈ An . |x| < 1/n.
n=1
x=0 x ̸= 0 |x| > 0.

(∃N ∈ N) N |x| > 1.

1
|x| > . x = 0. x ∈ {0}.
N
(i), (ii) (1)

(2)
[
(i) (∀n ∈ N) An ⊂ R An ⊂ R
n∈N

(ii) ∀x ∈ R [ [ (∃n ∈ N) n · 1 > |x|. x ∈ An .

x∈ An . R⊂ An .
n∈N n∈N

(i), (ii) (2)

[ \
4. {An }n∈N An , An
n∈N n∈N

22
 5. {An }n∈N (1),(2)
!∁
\ [ 
(1) An = A∁n .
n∈N n∈N
!∁
[ \ 
(2) An = A∁n .
n∈N n∈N

6. {An }n∈N (1),(2)

\
(1) (∀n ∈ N) (∀m ∈ N) n < m ⇒ An ⊂ Am An = A1 .
n∈N
[
(2) (∀n ∈ N) (∀m ∈ N) n < m ⇒ An ⊃ Am An = A1 .
n∈N

[ \
7. An , An

n∈N 
n∈N 
(1) An = − n1 , n1 (2) An = − n1 , n1 (3) An = (−n, n) (4) An = [−n, n]


 

(5) An = − n1 , n 1
(6) An = 0, n (7) An = 0, n1 (8) An = n1 , 3 − n1
(9) An = [n, 2n]

( : [5] )

A
1.
A ∩ B = {2, 3} (A ∩ B) ∩ C = {2, 3} ∩ {3, 4, 5, 6} = {3},
B ∩ C = {3, 6} A ∩ (B ∩ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {3, 6} = {3},
B ∪ C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} = {2, 3, 4},
A ∩ B = {2, 3} (A ∩ B) ∪ C = {2, 3} ∪ {3, 4, 5, 6} = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

2.
(1) (⇒) A ∪ B = X x ∈ A∁ x ∈ X = A∪B
x∈A x∈B x∈A x ∈ A∁ x∈B
∁
A ⊂ B.
(⇐) A∁ ⊂ B x∈X x∈A x ∈ A∁
x ∈ A∁ ∁
A ⊂B x∈B x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B,
x ∈ A∪B X ⊂ A ∪ B. X ⊃ A∪B
X = A ∪ B.

(2)
A∩B =∅ ⇔ (A ∩ B)∁ = ∅∁
⇔ (A∁ ) ∪ (B ∁ ) = X
 ∁
⇔ A∁ ⊂ B ∁
⇔ A∁ ⊂ B.

23
 3.

(1) n0 [ x ∈ An 0 [ (∃n ∈ N) x ∈ An
x∈ An . An 0 ⊂ An .
n∈N n∈N
\
(2) n0 x ∈ An n
n∈N \
x ∈ An x ∈ An 0 . An 0 ⊃ An .
n∈N

4.
[ \
An = {x | (∃n ∈ N) x ∈ An } , An = {x | (∀n ∈ N) x ∈ An } .
n∈N n∈N

5.

(1) x
!∁ !!
\ \
x∈ An ⇔ ¬ x∈ An
n∈N n∈N

⇔ ¬ ((∀n ∈ N) x ∈ An )
⇔ (∃n ∈ N)¬(x ∈ An )
⇔ (∃n ∈ N)x ∈ A∁n
[ 
⇔ x∈ A∁n
n∈N

!∁
\ [ 
An = A∁n .
n∈N n∈N

(2) x
!∁ !!
[ [
x∈ An ⇔ ¬ x∈ An
n∈N n∈N

⇔ ¬ ((∃n ∈ N) x ∈ An )
⇔ (∀n ∈ N)¬(x ∈ An )
⇔ (∀n ∈ N)x ∈ A∁n
\ 
⇔ x∈ A∁n
n∈N

!∁
[ \ 
An = A∁n .
n∈N n∈N

24
 6.
\
(1) (i) x ∈ An n x ∈ An .
n∈N
n=1 x ∈ A1 . (ii) x ∈ A1 \n
A1 ⊂ An x ∈ An . x∈ An . (i), (ii)
\ n∈N
An = A1 .
n∈N
[
(2) (i) x ∈ An n∗ x ∈ An ∗ .
n∈N
An ∗ ⊂ A1 x ∈[
A1 . (ii) x ∈ A1 [ n=1 x ∈ An .
( )x∈ An . (i), (ii) An = A1 .
n∈N n∈N

7. ( )
[ \
(1) An = A1 = (−1, 1), An = {0}.
n∈N n∈N
[ \
(2) An = A1 = [−1, 1], An = {0}.
n∈N n∈N
[ \
(3) An = R, An = A1 = (−1, 1).
n∈N n∈N
[ \
(4) An = R, An = A1 = [−1, 1].
n∈N n∈N
[ \
(5) An = (−1, ∞), An = [0, 1).
n∈N n∈N
[ \
(6) An = A1 = (0, 1), An = ∅.
n∈N n∈N
[ \
(7) An = A1 = [0, 1), An = {0}.
n∈N n∈N
[ \
(8) An = (0, 3), An = (1, 2).
n∈N n∈N
[ \
(9) An = [1, ∞), An = ∅.
n∈N n∈N

a A a∈A( A ∋ a)

a1 , . . . , an {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }

25
 {x | P (x)} := P (x) x .
N := {x | x } = {1, 2, 3, · · · } .
Z := {x | x } = {0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . . } .
n no
Q := {x | x } = x | (∃m ∈ N)(∃n ∈ Z) x = .
m
R := {x | x }.
C := {x | x }.
{x ∈ A | P (x)} := {x | x ∈ A ∧ P (x)} .
{f (x) | x ∈ A} := {y | (∃x ∈ A)y = f (x)} .
def.
( ) A=B ⇔ ∀x(x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B).
def.
A⊂B ⇔ ∀x(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B).

a ∈ A, A = B ( ), A ⊂ B a ̸∈ A, A ̸= B, A ̸⊂ B

A ∩ B := {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B} .
A ∪ B := {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B} .
A \ B := {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ̸∈ B} .
def.
( ) (a, b) = (a′ , b′ ) ⇔ a = a′ ∧ b = b′ .

A × B := {(a, b) | a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B} ( (a, b) ).
2A := {Y | Y ⊂ A} (Y ).
[
∞ [
An = An := {x | (∃n ∈ N)x ∈ An } .
n=1 n∈N

\
∞ \
An = An := {x | (∀n ∈ N)x ∈ An } .
n=1 n∈N
S T
A A := {x | (∃A ∈ A)x ∈ A}, A := {x | (∀A ∈ A)x ∈ A}.

C.1 ⊔
A∩B =∅ A∪B A⊔B
A1 , · · · , An
Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ (i ̸= j)
A1 ∪ · · · ∪ An A1 ⊔ · · · ⊔ An

26
C.2 ( )
A |A|

|A ⊔ B| = |A| + |B| .

|A1 ⊔ · · · ⊔ An | = |A1 | + · · · + |An | .

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B| .

|A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| − |A ∩ B| − |B ∩ C| − |C ∩ A| + |A ∩ B ∩ C| .

[
n X
n X X
Ai = |Ai | − |Ai ∩ Aj | + |Ai ∩ Aj ∩ Ak | − · · ·
i=1 i=1 1≤i<j≤n 1≤i<j<k≤n

· · · + (−1)n−1 |A1 ∩ · · · ∩ An | .

(the inclusion–exclusion principle)

C.1 µ(·)

µ(A ⊔ B) = µ(A) + µ(B),

µ(A ∪ B) = µ(A) + µ(B) − µ(A ∩ B).

C.3 (,)
C.3.1

(comma)

a, b, c ( ) a, b, c {a, b, c}
a, b, c {a b c} {a, b, c, }

27
C.3.2

P1 (x), P2 (x), · · · , Pn (x) ⇔ P1 (x) ∧ P2 (x) ∧ · · · ∧ Pn (x).

x = 1, y = 2 x=1∧y =2

 
x − 3x − 2 = 0
2
x = 1, 2.
 

x2 − 3x − 2 = 0 ⇔ x = 1 ∨ x = 2.

x = a1 , a2 , . . . , an ⇔ x = a1 ∨ x = a2 ∨ · · · ∨ x = an .
( {1, 2} )

 
x − 3x − 2 > 0
2
x < 1, x > 2.
 

x2 − 3x − 2 > 0 ⇔ x < 1 ∨ x > 2.

x = 1, y = 2 , ∧

C.4 vs
{x | P (x)}
Russel
Russel 

R := {x | x ̸∈ x}

• R∈R R ̸∈ R R R ̸∈ R.
R∈R

• R ̸∈ R R R ∈ R. R ̸∈ R

 

A P (x) A P (x)

∀A ∃B ∀x(x ∈ B ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ P (x)).

28
A P (x) B B

{x | x ∈ A ∧ P (x)}

{x ∈ A | P (x)}

B = {x | x ∈ A, x ̸= x}

B ∅

{a, b} = {x | x = a ∨ x = b} .

D
D.1 2015
• 5 14 ( )
( ) 412
15

• 5 21 (X − A = A )
{f (x) | x ∈ A}

• 5 28 2 (1)
(2) (1)
x∈A⇒x∈B

A = B ⇔ (∀x)x ∈ A ∈ B
..
.

(2) 613

D.2 2014
• 5 8
( 3) (∀, ∃)

A
4 5 3.16, 6 ∅⊂A
4

12
[Link]
13
[Link]

29
 • 5 15
3 4
5 3.17 ∅⊂A

• 5 22

[1] , (2002).

[2] — , (2002).

[3] — , (2012).

[4] , (1971).

[5] , (1968), .

30
C, 3 , 13
∈, 2
, 12
N, 3
̸∈, 3 , 13
Q, 3
R, 3 ,2
Z, 3
Russel , 28
∅, 10
, 12
, 12

, 12

, 10

,2

,2

, 13

,2
, 19
, 14
,8

, 12
, 13

, 13
,5

, 14

,2

, 14

, 28

( ), 4

,8
,8
,8
, 28

,7
, 15

31