MODULE-3

LEARNING

LEARNING

The term "learning" has been defined by psychologists in various ways. According to the most
acceptable definition, it is a “relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior potential)
resulting from experience” (Baron, 2001). Three points of this definition require clarification.
First, as defined by the concept of ‘relatively permanent change’, it is essential to note that
learning does not apply to temporary behaviors, such as those resulting from fatigue, drowsiness
after consuming drugs or heavy meals, or exhaustion due to illness. Second, permanent change
due to aging or maturation will not be considered as learning. Third, here ‘experience’ does not
mean our own experience only. Learning can also occur through vicarious learning, i.e., by
others’ experiences. And finally, the changes produced by learning are not always positive.
Now, the question is, why do we ‘learn’? What is the use of the process called ‘learning’? The
reason is that it helps us in adaptation and thus in survival.

Characteristics of Learning

 It is a continuous process and human beings are always undergoing the process of
learning as a result of their interactions with the environment in which they operate.
 The key component in learning is its outcome i.e. ‘change in behavior’. The change may
be positive or negative from the organizational point of view. For instance, people may
learn unfavorable behaviors like resistance and absenteeism as a result of their
experiences, as well as favorable behaviors like increased productivity. Whether the
outcome is favorable or unfavorable depends on their experiences as well as how they
process them.

Types of learning

Motor Learning:
Motor learning refers to the process through which we acquire and refine motor skills or physical
movements through repeated practice and experience. These skills range from basic movements
like walking, running, and jumping, to more complex ones like riding a bicycle, driving a car, or
playing a sport. Motor learning not only involves the ability to perform these actions but also
enhances the efficiency and coordination of movements over time. For example, learning to play
a musical instrument involves precise motor learning, as you develop fine motor skills to press
keys or strings in the correct sequence.

Verbal Learning:
Verbal learning is the acquisition of knowledge that enables us to communicate through words,
sounds, and symbols. This type of learning allows us to master language, helping us form and
express ideas, engage in conversation, and understand written and spoken communication.
Verbal learning includes remembering words, understanding grammar and syntax, and using
language effectively in various contexts. For example, a child learns to recognize the sound of
words and gradually associates them with meaning, building the foundation for language
comprehension and use.

Concept Learning:
Concept learning involves understanding how to classify objects, ideas, or events based on their
shared attributes or characteristics. It enables us to group similar things together, which helps us
make sense of the world. For instance, we learn to identify different types of animals, such as
classifying a barking, four-legged creature with a tail as a "dog." This process helps organize
information into meaningful categories, allowing us to make quick decisions and predictions
based on these classifications. In more complex situations, concept learning helps professionals
like doctors classify symptoms to diagnose illnesses or scientists categorize elements in
chemistry.

Discrimination Learning:
Discrimination learning refers to the ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond
appropriately to each one. This type of learning is crucial in situations where we need to identify
subtle differences in sensory input and take action accordingly. For example, recognizing the
distinct sounds of car horns allows us to differentiate between an approaching vehicle and a
distant one, guiding our behavior in traffic. Discrimination learning is also important in social
contexts, where we learn to interpret non-verbal cues like facial expressions and body language,
helping us respond correctly in social interactions. In more advanced scenarios, it helps pilots or
engineers differentiate between critical warning signals and normal operation sounds.

THEORIES OF LEARNING

In this section, we will discuss various theories explaining the psychological processes involved
in learning. Broadly, theories of learning can be categorized based on the following:

1) Learning by association: Known as classical conditioning

2) Learning by consequence: Known as operant or instrumental conditioning

3) Learning by watching others: Known as observational learning.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

The theory of classical conditioning was proposed by Ivan Pavlov. According to classical
conditioning, we learn by making associations and relationships among various stimuli. Baron
(2001), has described classical conditioning as “A basic form of learning in which one stimulus
comes to serve as a signal for the occurrence of a second stimulus. During classical conditioning,
organisms acquire information about the relations between various stimuli, not simple
associations between them.” The subjects of learning in this theory are always some kind of
automatic, involuntary, or reflexive responses such as heart rate, salivation, vomiting, pupil
dilatation, etc.

Before moving further first we should know the famous experiment done by Ivan Pavlov. His
experiment on dogs laid the foundation of Classical conditioning. Pavlov, a physiologist by
profession, was working on the process of digestion in dogs around 1889. While measuring the
salivation rate of dogs, he observed that his dogs often began to salivate when they smelled the
food or even at the sight of their empty food pan. That is, they start salivating before they
actually taste the food. To understand this interesting observation he conducted a study. He
conducted his study in two trials. He called his first trial a conditioning trial. During this trial, he
presented a neutral stimulus, a bell, that did not affect the dog’s salivation. The ringing of a bell
was immediately followed by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)-food-that can produce a dog’s
salivation. The response that the dog gave after getting food (unconditional stimulus) in the form
of salivation was termed an unconditioned response (UCR), because it did not depend on
previous learning. This pairing of the ringing of a bell followed by food was done a number of
times. After this repetitive pairing, neutral stimulus i.e., bell acquired the characteristics of UCS
i.e., food. Finally, Pavlov’s dog started giving a conditioned response (CR), i.e., it started
salivating in response to the sound of the bell only. The neutral stimulus used by Pavlov in his
experiment, i.e., the bell was termed by him as a conditioned stimulus (CS), because initially,
the bell had no characteristics of producing salivation in the dog but later under certain
conditions it acquired the ability to produce salivation in the dog.

Now let us have a quick review of important terms:

 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that can produce a response unconditionally

and naturally, whenever it is presented. For example, cutting up an onion can make you
cry, or pollen from a flower can make you sneeze. Here, onion and pollen are two
examples of UCS.
 Unconditioned Response (UCR): Response for which we do not need any previous
learning i.e., which occurs automatically without any condition. As discussed already,
‘crying’ while cutting an onion and ‘sneezing’ are examples of UCR.
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A stimulus that was initially neutral in nature i.e., was not
capable of producing any response. Later, with repeated pairing with UCS, it becomes
 able of predicting a UCS and thus could elicit the response originally meant for UCS
only.
 Conditioned Response (CR): The response we give to a conditioned stimulus because of
some experience is known as Conditioned Response CR.

Principles of Classical Conditioning:

Now you know that the food was given to the dog just after the light/sound of the bell and
conditioning resulted. Have you thought about what would happen if the sound of the bell came
after the food? Have you considered whether the bell would continue to elicit salivation if meat
powder was not given to the dog a number of times? After the formulation of the basic principles
of classical conditioning, Pavlov engaged himself in exploring and illustrating some of the
principles of classical conditioning.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a natural response is trained to happen to a

new stimulus, like Pavlov’s dogs learning to salivate at the sound of a bell. But what happens
after the learning takes place? The following five concepts explain different situations that can
occur after conditioning.

1) Extinction

Extinction means the disappearance or weakening of a learned behavior when the reinforcement
(reward) is stopped.

Imagine a dog has been trained to salivate when it hears a bell, because it always receives food
afterward. This connection between the bell (Conditioned Stimulus or CS) and food
(Unconditioned Stimulus or UCS) causes the dog to salivate (Conditioned Response or CR).
But now, if you start ringing the bell without giving food, the dog will still salivate a few times.
However, over repeated trials without food, the salivation will gradually reduce and eventually
stop completely.

This process, where the conditioned response fades away because the expected reward no longer
follows the signal, is called extinction. It shows that learned behavior needs to be maintained
through reinforcement. Without it, the learning can fade.
2) Spontaneous Recovery

Even after extinction, sometimes the learned behavior can suddenly return after some time.
This is called spontaneous recovery.

Let’s continue with the same dog. After extinction, you stop using the bell for many days or
weeks. Then, one day, you ring the bell again—and the dog starts salivating again, even though
it had stopped before. This return of the response happens without any new training, which is
why it’s called spontaneous recovery.

However, this recovered response is usually weaker than the original one. If you give food with
the bell again, the learning can become strong once more. But if you still do not give any food,
the response may disappear permanently.

3) Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus generalization happens when a learned response is triggered by other stimuli that
are similar to the original one.

For example, Pavlov trained a dog to salivate at a specific bell sound. Then he tested other
sounds that were similar but not exactly the same. The dog still salivated to those new sounds,
though the response was stronger for sounds that were more similar to the original. This
shows that the dog had generalized its learning to other similar stimuli.

This means, if the original bell was high-pitched, and you now ring a bell with a slightly
different pitch, the dog will still salivate, but maybe not as much. The more different the new
sound is, the less the dog salivates. This creates a response gradient, where the conditioned
response decreases as the similarity to the original stimulus decreases.

Stimulus generalization is helpful in real life too—for example, if you burn your hand on a hot
stove, you learn to be careful around all stoves, not just that one.

4) Discrimination
Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. It means the dog (or person) learns to respond
only to a specific stimulus, and not to others that are similar.

Let’s say the dog salivates to bell sound B, and through generalization, it also salivates to similar
bell sounds B1 and B2. But now, you only give food after B1, and never give food after B2.
Over time, the dog learns the difference—it salivates to B1 (because it’s reinforced), and stops
salivating to B2 (because it’s not reinforced).

This is called discrimination—the ability to tell apart similar stimuli based on which ones bring
a reward and which ones don’t. It’s an important part of learning, helping animals and humans
respond appropriately to specific situations.

5) Counter-Conditioning

Counter-conditioning is a process where a new response is learned to replace an old one,

usually one that is unwanted.

For example, suppose a dog is trained to withdraw its paw when it hears a bell because the bell
is always followed by a mild shock. This creates a negative association between the bell and
pain. Now, you change the setup—whenever the bell rings, you give the dog food instead. Over
time, the dog stops withdrawing its paw and starts salivating to the bell instead.

This is counter-conditioning—the dog replaces its fear response with a positive one
(salivation), because the new stimulus (food) is more pleasant. This method is often used in
behavior therapy to replace unpleasant emotions (like fear or anxiety) with more positive
feelings.

The Little Albert Experiment

Can we apply the principle of Classical Conditioning to human learning also? To answer this,
John B. Watson conducted an experiment on a nine-month-old child named “Albert B”, also
famously known as Little Albert. Watson hypothesized that a child’s fearful response to loud
noise is an unconditioned response. He further proposed that by using the principles of classical
conditioning, a child can be made fearful of any neutral stimulus. During the baseline condition
of the experiment, Watson and his assistants exposed little Albert to various stimuli, including a
white rat, a rabbit, and a mask. As expected, little Albert did not show any fearful response to
these objects. In the control condition, when Albert was exposed to the rat, Albert made a loud
noise. This made Albert fearful, and he began to cry. After a repeated presentation of a white rat
with a loud noise, he began to cry just after seeing the rat. Later, it was observed that Albert had
started to generalize his fear of similar-looking white and furry objects. Here, Neutral Stimulus:
White rat Unconditioned Stimulus: Loud noise Unconditioned Response: Crying and fearful
emotional response Conditioned Stimulus: White rat Conditioned Response: Crying and fearful
emotional response.

Learned Helplessness Seligman’s learned helplessness experiments with dogs used an apparatus
that measured when the animals would move from a floor delivering shocks to one without.
Learning. The phenomenon of learned helplessness was given by Martin Seligman in the late
1960s while working on classical conditioning with dogs. He noticed that those dogs who
received an unavoidable electric shock several times did not act to rescue themselves when they
had an opportunity in the subsequent situations. Whereas, those dogs who received no
inescapable shock, took action to save themselves from the electric shock. He termed the
behavior of the first group as learned helplessness’s learned response to not taking any
appropriate action to avoid aversive stimuli. In other words, one’s tendency to avoid taking any
action for a successful escape from an aversive or painful situation is due to the history of failed
attempts. The theory of learned helplessness has also been successfully applied to understand the
problem of depression in Human Beings

Applications Of Classical Conditioning

1. Behavioral Therapy (Phobias & Anxiety)

Classical conditioning is used to treat phobias and anxiety. For example, in exposure therapy,
people face their fears gradually without negative outcomes, helping reduce fear. In relaxation
training, calm feelings are paired with stressful situations to replace anxiety with calmness.

2. Advertising & Marketing

Advertisers pair products with positive images, music, or celebrities to create pleasant feelings
about the product. Over time, people associate the brand with those good feelings, which
increases brand loyalty.

3. Taste Aversion

If someone gets sick after eating a particular food, they may develop an aversion to it, even if the
food wasn’t the cause. This is a common survival-based response explained by classical
conditioning.

4. Addiction & Recovery

People in recovery may crave substances when exposed to certain cues (like a place or smell).
Therapy can help break this link. In aversion therapy, a bad stimulus (like nausea) is paired
with the addictive substance to create dislike.

5. Education

Teachers create a positive learning environment by pairing praise or rewards with class
participation or good performance, making students enjoy learning and behave better in class.

6. Emotional Conditioning

Strong emotions like fear can be learned. For instance, a child scared by loud noises while
seeing a balloon may later fear balloons. This can also explain PTSD, where neutral cues trigger
trauma responses.

7. Health & Immunology

The placebo effect may occur when a person experiences relief from a neutral pill because it’s
associated with real medication. In some cases, the immune system can be trained to respond to
certain smells or tastes.

8. Workplace Motivation
Managers use praise, bonuses, or rewards to encourage good work habits. Employees begin to
associate hard work with positive outcomes, which can increase motivation.

9. Animal Training

Trainers use clickers and treats to condition pets to follow commands. In wildlife, conditioning
helps animals avoid danger or return for food at certain times.

10. Everyday Life

We develop habits like waking up with an alarm or feeling hungry at mealtimes due to repeated
pairings. Music can also trigger emotions based on past associations.

OPERANT CONDITIONING: CONSEQUENCE-BASED LEARNING

In operant conditioning, the result or consequence of behavior determines if it will be repeated in

the future or not. Operant conditioning can be defined as a principle of learning in which
behavior is maintained or changed through its positive or negative consequences. According to
the principles of operant conditioning, positive consequences lead to the repetition of the
behavior, whereas, negative consequences will lead to avoidance of the behavior. Factors that
increase the probability of repetition of behavior have been termed as reinforcement. Whereas,
factors that weaken or suppress the targeted behavior have been termed as punishment.

B.F. Skinner was the main proponent of operant conditioning. He studied the learning
mechanism involved in voluntary behavior. Since voluntary behavior occurs when an organism
‘operates on the environment’, he termed such voluntary behavior as operant. Thus, conditioning
of operant behavior is known as operant conditioning. Skinner’s work was inspired by
Thorndike’s principle of the law of effect, which states that behavior is followed by pleasant
outcomes is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant are outcomes likely to be
stopped. Now let’s talk about the experiment done by Skinner. In his experiment, Skinner kept a
hungry rat inside a closed chamber. The chamber has a lever, which is connected to a food
container kept outside. During exploratory behavior, initially, the rat pressed the lever
accidentally, leading to dropping off a food pellet. After some such accidental trials, rats learned
the behavior of pressing the lever for a food pellet. Conditioning was complete when the rat
pressed the lever immediately after it food was placed in the chamber. Here, lever pressing is an
operant behavior, and getting food is its consequence. Since in this experiment, the behavior of
pressing the lever was a medium or instrument for obtaining food, this type of learning is also
known as instrumental learning

An Overview of Reinforcement and Punishment

Procedure Stimulus Event Effects Behavioral

Outcomes
Positive Application of a Strengthens Organisms learn to
reinforcement desirable stimulus responses that perform responses
Stimulus (e.g., food, rewards, precede the that produce positive
praise) occurrence of the reinforces
stimulus
Negative Application of an Strengthens Organisms learn to
reinforcement undesirable responses that permit perform responses
(aversive) stimulus escape from or that permit them to
(e.g., heat, cold, harsh avoidance of stimulus avoid or escape from
criticism) negative reinforces
Positive punishment Application of an Weakens the Organisms learn to
undesirable responses that suppress responses
(aversive) stimulus precede the that lead to
occurrence of a unpleasant
stimulus consequences
Negative punishment Lose or Weakens responses Organisms learn to
postponement of a that lead to a loss or suppress responses
desirable stimulus postponement of that lead to loss or
stimulus postponement of the
 desired stimulus

Schedules of Reinforcement

The schedule on which reinforcement is delivered significantly affects how quickly and robustly
a behavior is learned or maintained. There are several types:

Continuous Reinforcement: The behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. This leads to rapid
learning but also rapid extinction if the reinforcement stops.

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement: The behavior is reinforced only some of the time, which
leads to more resistant behaviors to extinction. It can be broken into four types:

Here, we will talk about the schedule of reinforcement-” rules determining when and how
reinforcement will be delivered” (Baron 2001).

Reinforcement Schedule Explanation Real-world example

Fixed-ratio Behavior is reinforced after a Factory workers who are paid
specific number of responses according to the number of
products they produce
Variable-ratio Behavior is reinforced after Payoffs from slot machines
an average, but unpredictable, and other games of chance
number of responses
Fixed-interval Behavior is reinforced for the People who earn a monthly
first response after a specific salary
amount of time has passed
Variable-interval Behavior is reinforced for the A person who checks voice
first response after an mail for messages
average, but unpredictable,
amount of time has passed

The Principle of Shaping and Chaining

The principles of operant conditioning are called shaping and chaining. Shaping is a process of
learning a new behavior in which a successively closer approximation of the desired behavior is
reinforced, that is the organism will be rewarded for each small step towards targeted behavior.
Any complex behavior or skill is a chain of many steps. The process of chaining involves
breaking a task into small steps and then teaching these steps in sequence or chain. In chaining,
only the targeted behavior is rewarded, i.e., once the trainee accomplishes the last step he will be
rewarded. For example, if you want to teach a child to use the spoon to feed himself then the
chaining principle can be used.

Premack Principle

It is given by David Premack, that according to this principle, a more preferred behavior can be
used as reinforcement for a less preferred behavior. One example of the usage of the Premack
principle can be best explained in a circumstance where to develop a habit of reading in the
child, the mother promises her child to allow him/her to play outside provided the child reads for
a period of 20 minutes

Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to a

decrease in that behavior. For example, if a child is no longer praised for doing their homework,
they may stop completing it over time.

A discriminative stimulus is a cue that signals the availability of reinforcement or punishment.

For example, if a child learns that behaving well in the presence of their parent leads to praise,
the parent becomes a discriminative stimulus for good behavior.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is widely used to shape behavior through reinforcement and punishment in
various fields:

1. Education

 Classroom Management: Teachers use praise, rewards (positive reinforcement), or

removal of privileges (punishment) to shape behavior.
  Token Economy: Students earn tokens for good behavior and exchange them for
rewards.
 Shaping Learning: Small achievements are rewarded to build complex skills.

2. Parenting

 Encouraging Good Behavior: Praise, treats, or reduced chores are used to reward
desirable actions.
 Disciplining: Time-outs or removal of toys help reduce unwanted behavior.

3. Workplace

 Employee Motivation: Bonuses, promotions, or public recognition for performance.

 Skill Building: Managers shape new skills by rewarding small improvements.

4. Therapy & Behavior Change

 Behavior Therapy: Reinforcement is used to replace unhealthy behaviors.

 Token Economies: Often used in psychiatric or child therapy for behavior change.
 Shaping in Therapy: Gradually reinforcing steps toward a desired goal (e.g., social
interaction).

5. Animal Training

 Training with Rewards: Treats or praise used to teach commands.

 Shaping Complex Behaviors: Gradual reinforcement teaches tricks.
 Avoidance Learning: Discomfort teaches animals to avoid certain actions.

6. Self-Improvement

 Breaking Habits: Rewards for healthy actions or penalties for bad habits.
 Building Routines: Reinforcing daily achievements builds consistency.

7. Criminal Justice
  Prison Behavior Management: Rewards for good conduct; punishment for rule-
breaking.
 Rehabilitation: Encouragement and rewards help reform behavior in therapy and
training.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: LEARNING BY OBSERVATION

The main proponent of observational learning was Albert Bandura. Unlike classical conditioning
and operant conditioning, according to observational learning, cognitive processes play an
important role in learning behavior. Based on his work with phobic patients and the famous
Bobo doll experiment (1963), Bandura propounded the ‘Social Learning Theory’. According to
social learning theory, learning occurs in a social setting by observing others' behavior and its
outcome. This observational learning can occur in two ways: (i) direct observation, and (ii)
indirect observation. In direct observation, you learn behaviour by observing others directly
(called a model), this process is known as modelling. While in indirect observation, you learn by
observing or hearing others' experiences. This kind of indirect learning is known as vicarious
learning.

Suppose you wanted to go on a trip to the Northeastern states of India. One of your friends who
recently came back from his trip to the northeast suggests you carry an umbrella or raincoat, as it
can rain anytime. What will you do? There are very high chances that you will listen to his
experience and carry an umbrella. This kind of learning is an example of vicarious learning

The famous Bobo-Doll experiment to have an in-depth understanding of observational learning.

Bandura and his colleagues experimented on children to investigate the role of observational and
imitation in learning social behavior, such as aggression. They selected 72 children between the
age group of three to six years. Children were randomly assigned to three groups: one control
and two experimental conditions. In one group of experiment conditions, children were shown a
movie with an aggressive model, beating, hitting, and abusing a Bobo doll. In another
experimental condition, a non-aggressive model was shown playing peacefully and in a friendly
way with a Bobo doll. Whereas, in the control condition children were not shown any movie.
Later, all groups of children were placed in a room full of varieties of toys. It was observed that
children who were exposed to the aggressive model imitated the model’s behavior. They also
punched, hit, and used abusive words for Bobo dolls. In contrast, the children of the second
experimental group, who were exposed to a non-aggressive model, did not demonstrate any
aggression with Bobo. doll. This was one of the landmark studies in psychology. It suggested
that observation and imitation play a crucial role in learning.

Process Involved in Observational Learning

1. Attention

For observational learning to occur, the learner must first pay attention to the model. The level of
attention depends on various factors, including:

 Attractiveness and relevance of the model: People are more likely to pay attention to
models they find attractive, competent, or relatable. This could include parents, peers,
teachers, or celebrities.
 Nature of the behaviour: Complex or highly engaging behaviours are more likely to
capture attention.
 Motivation and interest: If the learner is motivated or interested in the behaviour or
outcome, they are more likely to pay attention.

2. Retention

After paying attention to the model, the learner must be able to retain or remember the observed
behavior. Retention involves encoding the behavior into memory for future retrieval. Key aspects
include:

 Mental Rehearsal: Repeating the behaviour mentally helps in retaining it.

 Memory Techniques: Organizing the information into meaningful patterns or visualising
the behaviour helps improve retention.

3. Reproduction
Once the behavior is remembered, the learner must have the physical and mental ability to
reproduce or imitate the observed behavior. Even if a person retains the information, they may
not be able to perform the behavior unless they possess the necessary skills or capacity. For
instance, a child might observe an adult driving a car but will not be able to reproduce the
behavior due to a lack of motor skills or understanding.

4. Motivation

For observational learning to be successful, the learner must be motivated to reproduce the
observed behavior. Motivation can come from:

 Reinforcement or Punishment: Observing others being rewarded or punished for their

behavior influences whether the learner will imitate the behavior. This is known as
vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment.
 Intrinsic Motivation: The learner may be internally motivated to reproduce the behavior
because they find it satisfying, interesting, or aligned with their goals.

5. Model Characteristics

Certain characteristics of the model influence whether or not their behavior is imitated:

 Similarity: People are more likely to imitate behaviors from models who are similar to
them in age, gender, or status.
 Success: Models who are seen as successful or competent are more likely to be imitated.
 Status: High-status individuals (such as celebrities or authority figures) are more likely to
serve as models for behavior.
 Warmth and Likability: Models perceived as likable or nurturing are more likely to be
followed.

6. Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment

Learning can occur without direct experience of reinforcement or punishment. Instead,

individuals can learn by observing the consequences that others face for their behavior. If a
model is rewarded for a behavior, the observer is more likely to imitate it (vicarious
reinforcement). Conversely, if a model is punished for a behavior, the observer is less likely to
imitate it (vicarious punishment).

7. Cognitive Processes

Bandura emphasized that learning involves cognitive processes such as thinking, interpreting,
and evaluating. This sets observational learning apart from simple conditioning. The learner
actively processes information, considers the consequences of the observed behavior, and
decides whether or not to imitate it. It is not just a passive imitation but involves critical thinking
about the modeled behavior.

Applications of Observational Learning

Education

 Teacher Modelling: Students learn by watching teachers solve problems, behave kindly,
or speak clearly. Example: A student watches the teacher solve a math problem step-by-
step and copies the same method.
 Peer Learning: Students learn from observing classmates who answer questions or work
well in groups.

2. Parenting & Child Development

 Social Behaviour: Children learn habits like greeting people or eating properly by
watching their parents.
 Language Learning: Kids pick up words, tone, and grammar by imitating adults.
 Emotional Control: They learn how to react to anger or stress by watching adults stay
calm.

3. Media and Advertising

  Celebrity Influence: People imitate celebrities they see in ads (like using the same
shampoo or shoes).
 TV & Social Media: Kids may copy behaviors (good or bad) seen in shows or online
videos.

4. Therapy and Counseling

 Behavior Modeling: Therapists show healthy ways to cope with stress, which clients
copy.
 Role-Playing: Clients observe and practice how to talk assertively or handle tough
situations.

5. Workplace Learning

 Mentorship: New employees learn by watching experienced staff.

 On-the-Job Training: People learn tasks (like welding or baking) by watching others.
 Work Culture: Observing coworkers teaches what's normal behavior in the office.

6. Sports

 Skill Building: Athletes watch coaches or senior players to learn new techniques.
Example: A cricketer improves bowling by watching videos of professionals.
 Teamwork: Players learn team strategy and movement by watching others during
practice.

7. Crime and Rehabilitation

 Learning Crime: Teens may pick up harmful behaviors by seeing peers or family
involved in crime.
 Rehabilitation: Positive role models in programs help ex-criminals see better choices.

8. Health and Well-being

  Health Campaigns: People copy actions shown in health ads like handwashing or
exercising.
 Healthy Habits: Kids are more likely to eat well or stay active if they see parents doing
so.
 Phobia Treatment: Watching others calmly face fears (like dogs or heights) helps
reduce fear.

9. Culture and Traditions

 Cultural Norms: Children learn customs, language, and rituals by watching family or
community.
 Generational Learning: Skills and values are passed down by example—like cooking or
prayers.

10. Animal Training

 Imitation in Animals: Young animals copy hunting or survival skills by watching

adults.
 Training Pets: A dog may learn tricks by watching a trainer or another trained dog.

STRATEGIES IN LEARNING: IMAGERY, REHEARSAL AND ORGANISATION

What could be the best way or strategy for learning information? Cognitive and educational
psychologists have done extensive studies to find out the most appropriate strategies for learning.
Findings suggest that learning can be improved using the method of imagery, rehearsal, and
organisation. In this section, we will discuss these strategies briefly. Mental Imagery Answer the
following questions: How many windows are in your house? How many vowels are in the
spelling of 100? To answer the first question, most people have imagined themselves taking a
mental tour of their house and counting the number of windows. To answer the second question,
people have mentally formed an image of the spelling of the digit 100 and counted the number of
vowels present in its spelling. So, here mental imagery has helped you in answering these
questions. Without the ability to produce mental images, you would not have answered it
correctly. Studies have suggested that if you are capable of producing mental images of the
information to be remembered, then you can learn things more efficiently. It can be defined as
one’s ability to visualise the situation or information mentally. Developmental studies have
suggested that older students can get more benefits by using this method.

Learning information using imagery involves two steps:

1) Reading the information to be remembered.

2) Mentally forming a picture of that information.

If the mental image contains all the relevant information, then, it will be more accurately learned.
Further, reading from a book or source having a lot of details also helps in forming images and
thus improves learning.

Rehearsal

Rehearsing refers to repeating information over and over again to learn it. Rehearsal can be of
two types: maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal. In maintenance rehearsal,
information is simply repeated several times, without understanding the underlying meaning, to
keep it in memory. On the other hand, elaborative rehearsal- is a method of learning information
by attempting to elaborate it either by understanding its underlying meaning or by making
meaningful connections with other information. Studies have suggested that learning a concept
or information using the elaborative rehearsal method is more effective, as it helps in retaining
information for a longer period.

One way of doing elaborative rehearsal is elaborative interrogation involves asking why
questions for the information to be remembered and then generating an answer. Studies have
suggested that this specific technique is useful in remembering facts.

Organization

Learning this strategy of learning requires the re-organization of information to be remembered

in such a way that would facilitate the learning process. For example, you were asked to
remember the following list: Delhi Ostrich London Ludhiana Yak Greenwich Owl You can
either learn these items by making separate groups for city and animal names or you can create a
new word by taking the first alphabet from each word, such as DOLLY-GO.
This method helps in improving learning in two ways;

(1) it reduces a large amount of information into a manageable amount, and

(2) it helps in retrieving information more accurately