GOOD MORNING ☺

by
Dr. RAVILLA DILLI

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3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Topics to be Discussed in this Section

Physical Layer:
Physical Media
Channel Rate
Line Coding Techniques
Multiplexing and Multiple Access Techniques
Switching Techniques

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Types of Physical Media: Cable(Conducted Media) Radiated
Coaxial Infrared
Unshielded Twisted pair(UTP) Microwave
Shielded Twisted Pair(STP) Radio
LAN: 1m to 1Km OFC Satellite
Medium → Coaxial Cables,
UTP(Cat. 3,5,5e,6,7), MAN: 10Km
Fibers Medium → Coaxial Cables,
Wireless UTP(Cat. 3,5,5e,6,7),
Ethernet, ATM, FDDI, Hubs, Hybrid
Switches Fibers
FDDI: fiber distributed data interface
SONET: synchronous optical n/w WAN: 10Km to 10000Km
SDH: synchronous digital hierarchy Medium → Fibers, Satellite
DWDM: dense wavelength division multiplexing
SONET/SDH, ATM, IP,
GEO: geostationary earth orbit
LEO: low earth orbit DWDM, GEO & LEO
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Physical Media: Wire Propagation Effects
1. Attenuation: Loss of energy as signal propagates.(dB/km)
2. Distortion: Diminish different Fourier coefficients by different amounts.
Signal changes its form or shape.
3. Noise : Thermal noise in a wire is unavoidable; Crosstalk due to
inductive coupling; Impulse noise due to spikes on the power line.
4. SNR
5. Interference
6. Termination effects etc.,

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Physical Media: Categories of guided media

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Physical Media: Twisted Pair

Twisted-pair cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors each surrounded by an insulating
material.
Twisted-pair cables are used for telephone communications and most modern
Ethernet networks.
A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are twisted to
provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs.
There are two basic types, shielded twisted-pair (STP) and unshielded twisted-
pair (UTP).

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Physical Media: Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Figure: Shielded twisted-pair cable

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Physical Media: Twisted Pair Cable
Why Twisted-Pair Cable Reduces Noise ?
• Interference from devices such as a motor can create unequal noise over two parallel
lines.

• The line that is closer to the device receives more interference than the one that is
farther. If however, the wires are twisted around each other at regular intervals, each
wire is closer to the noise source for half of the time and farther for the other half.

• Both receive the same amount of noise. The noise from two wires cancel each other out
at the receiver.

Use of UTP in Telephone Network:

• In the early days of the telephone network, the local loop, the two wires that connect a
residence to the telephone office, was made of two parallel wires.
• The telephone companies later changed the local loop to a pair of twisted-pair wires,
which is less prone to noise than the previous parallel wires.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Physical Media: Twisted Pair Cable
Shielding and Lightning:
• We can be immune from lightning in a desert if we are surrounded by a metallic
cover (inside a car, for example).

• The reason is that electromagnetic energy (lightning) can penetrate insulators,

but not metals. Lightning on a metallic shell creates a current on the outside
surface, which can be dangerous; the inside is protected.

• Electromagnetic energy passes through an insulator, but is stopped by a metal.

The same idea is used in shielded twisted-pair cable.

• The shield is a metal that protects the cable from outside noise, electromagnetic
interference.

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Physical Media: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Consists of 4 pairs (8 wires) of insulated copper wires typically about 1 mm

thick., the wires are twisted together in a helical form.
Twisting reduces the interference between pairs of wires.
High bandwidth and High attenuation channel.
Flexible and cheap cable.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Physical Media: Categories of UTP
UTP cables are categorized based on the number of twists in the wires,
the diameter of the wires and the material used in the wires.

CAT 3, CAT 4, CAT 5, Enhanced CAT 5e and CAT 6.

Category 3 is the wiring used for telephone connections.

Category 5e and Category 6 are the most common Ethernet cables used.

CAT 3 :
Bandwidth 16 MHz
11.5 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Used in voice applications and 10baseT (10Mbps) Ethernet

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Physical Media: Categories of UTP
CAT 4 : 20 MHz Bandwidth
7.5 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Used in 10baseT (10Mbps) Ethernet

CAT 5 :
100 MHz Bandwidth
24.0 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Used for high-speed data transmission
Used in 10BaseT (10 Mbps) Ethernet & Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)

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Physical Media: Categories of UTP
CAT 5e :
150 MHz Bandwidth
24.0 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Transmits high-speed data
Used in Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) & 155 Mbps
ATM
CAT 6 :
250 MHz Bandwidth
19.8 dB Attenuation
100 ohms Impedance
Transmits high-speed data
Used in Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) & 10 Gig Ethernet (10000 Mbps)

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Physical Media: Categories of UTP

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Physical Media: Coaxial Cable Category Impedance Use

RG-59 75 Ohms Cable TV

Thin
RG-58 50 Ohms
Ethernet
Thick
RG-11 50 Ohms
Ethernet

Coaxial cable is a copper-cored cable surrounded by a heavy shielding and is

used to connect computers in a network.
Outer conductor shields the inner conductor from picking up stray signal from
the air.
High bandwidth but lossy channel.
Repeater is used to regenerate the weakened signals.
RG: Radio guide
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Physical Media: Optical Fiber Cable
Optical Fiber: It uses light to send information through the optical medium.
It uses the principal of Total internal reflection.
Modulated light transmissions are used to transmit the signal.

Optical Fiber Cable may have 1 to over 1000 fibers.

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Physical Media: Optical Fiber Cable Structure
• Core
– Glass or plastic with a higher index of
refraction than the cladding
– Carries the signal
• Cladding
– Glass or plastic with a lower index of
refraction than the core
• Buffer
– Protects the fiber from damage and
moisture
• Jacket
– Holds one or more fibers in a cable

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Physical Media: Types of Optical Fibers
Two types of Fiber media :
Multimode
Single mode

Single-mode fiber
Carries light pulses along single path
Uses Laser Light Source

Multimode fiber
Many pulses of light generated by LED travel at different angles

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Physical Media: Optical Signal Propagation modes

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Physical Media: Optical Fibers
Advantages:
• Noise resistance – Because fiber optic transmission uses light rather
than electricity, noise is not a factor.
• Less signal attenuation – fiber optic transmission distance is
significantly greater than that of other guided media. A signal can run
without requiring regeneration.
• Higher Bandwidth – bandwidths are very high in fiber optics.

Disadvantages:
• Cost – manufacturing is painstakingly precise, hence costly.
• Installation and maintenance – roughness and cracking in the Core of
the optic cable diffuses light and alters the signal.
• All splices must be polished and precisely fused.
• Fragility – glass fiber can break easily making it useless.
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Physical Media: Optical Fibers

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is used in optical fibers where the input end of a
WDM system is a simple coupler that multiplexes all the signal inputs into one output fiber.
The demux separates the light at the end of the fiber.
Current systems offer from 4 to 32 channels of wavelengths. The higher numbers of
wavelengths has lead to the name “Dense” Wavelength Division Multiplexing or DWDM.
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Physical Media: Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

It transports EM Waves without using a physical conductor. Signals are
broadcast through the air ( in some cases water). These are available to
anyone who can receive them.

Radio Frequency Allocation – the selection of the EM spectrum defined as

radio communication is divided into 8 ranges, called bands, each regulated
by government.

VLF and HF – this propagate very close to the surface.

MF and HF – upper layers and then reflect back to the earth.
VHF and UHF – transmitted using line of sight.
SHF and EHF – space propagation.

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Physical Media: Unguided Media (Wireless Media)
Table: Frequency Bands
Band Range Propagation Application
VLF 3–30 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation
Radio beacons and
LF 30–300 KHz Ground
navigational locators
MF 300 KHz–3 MHz Sky AM radio
Citizens band (CB),
HF 3–30 MHz Sky
ship/aircraft communication
Sky and VHF TV,
VHF 30–300 MHz
line-of-sight FM radio
UHF TV, cellular phones,
UHF 300 MHz–3 GHz Line-of-sight
paging, satellite
SHF 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite communication
EHF 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Long-range radio navigation
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Physical Media: Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Physical Media: Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

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Physical Media: Unguided Media (Wireless Media)
• Very useful in difficult terrain where cable laying is
not possible.
• Provides mobility to communication nodes.
• Right of way and cable laying costs can be reduced.
• Susceptible to rain, atmospheric variations and
Objects in transmission path.

Indoor : 10m– 50m : Bluetooth, WLAN

Short range Outdoor : 50m – 200m: WLAN
Mid Range Outdoor : 200m – 5 Km : GSM, CDMA, WLAN Point-to-Point, Wi-
Max
Long Range Outdoor : 5 Km – 100 Km : Microwave Point-to-Point
Long Distance Communication : Across Continents : Satellite Communication

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Physical Media: Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

Terrestrial microwave
Microwaves do not follow the curvature of earth
Line-of-Sight (LOS) transmission
Height allows the signal to travel farther
Two frequencies for two-way communication
Repeater is used to increase the distance Hop-by-Hop

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Physical Media: Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

Satellites in geosynchronous orbit

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Physical Media: Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Physical Media: Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

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Maximum Data Rate of a Channel: According to the Nyquist theorem, the
sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency.

Nyquist’s theorem: (for Noiseless Channel)

Max. Data Rate ( or Channel Capacity) = 2 H log2V bits/Sec

Shannon’s Limit: (for a Noisy Channel)

Max. number of bits/Sec (or Channel Capacity) = H log2(1 + S/N)
V →No. of discrete signal levels H→ Bandwidth in Hz
S/N → Signal-to-Noise ratio

Note: 1. In case of extremely noisy channel, C = 0

2. Between the Nyquist Bit Rate and the Shannon limit, the result providing
the smallest channel capacity is the one that establishes the limit.

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Channel Rate : Nyquist bit Rates, Shannon’s limit
Problem1: A channel has B = 4 kHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 30dB.
Determine maximum information rate for 128-level encoding.
Solution: The Nyquist Bit Rate for B = 4 kHz and M = 128 levels is 56 kbps.
Again the Shannon capacity for B = 4 kHz and S/N of 30 dB is 39.8 Kbps.
The smallest of the two values decides the channel capacity C = 39.8 kbps.
Problem 2: A channel has B = 4 KHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 30dB.
Determine maximum data rate for 4-level encoding.
Solution: For B = 4 KHz and 4-level encoding the Nyquist Bit Rate is 16 Kbps.
Again for B = 4 KHz and S/N of 30 dB the Shannon capacity is 39.8 Kbps.
The smallest of the two values has to be taken as the max. data rate (or
Channel capacity) = 16 Kbps.

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Channel Rate : Nyquist bit Rates, Shannon’s limit
Problem3: If a binary signal is sent over a 3-kHz channel whose SNR is 20dB,
What is the max. achievable data rate?
Solution: Since the channel is Noisy,
Using Shannon Limit, C = Blog2(1 + S /N)
= 3 x 103 log2(1 + 100)
(since, SNR = 20 dB → S/N = 100)
= 19.975 kbps.
Using Nyquist limit, The max. data rate = 6 kbps.
Between the Nyquist Bit Rate and the Shannon limit, the result providing
the smallest channel capacity is the one that establishes the limit.
Therefore, maximum channel capacity = 6 kbps.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Channel Rate : Nyquist bit Rates, Shannon’s limit
Problem 4: A channel has B = 4 KHz. Determine the channel capacity for
each of the following signal-to-noise ratios: (a) 20dB, (b) 30dB, (c) 40dB.
Solution:
(a) C= B log2(1 + S/N) = 4×103×log2(1+100) = 4×103×3.32×2.004 = 26.6 kbits/s
(b) C= B log2(1 + S/N) = 4×103×log2(1+1000) = 4×103×3.32×3.0 = 39.8 kbits/s
(c) C= B log2(1 + S/N) = 4×103×log2(1+10000) = 4×103×3.32×4.0 = 53.1 kbits/s
Problem 5: Television channels are 6 MHz wide. How many bits/sec can be
sent if 4-level digital signals are used? Assume a noiseless channel.
Solution:
According to Nyquist theorem, we can sample 12 x 106 times/sec.
4-level signals provide 2 bits per sample.
Therefore, we can have a total data rate of 12 x 106 x2 = 24Mbps.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Channel Rate : Nyquist bit Rates, Shannon’s limit
Problem 6: If the BW is 3100 Hz and we are using 16 level modulation
then what is Max. no. of bps ? Answer: 24kbps

Problem 7: If the channel BW is 3kHz with a SNR of 30dB then what is Max.
no. of bps ? Answer: 30kbps

Problem 8: What is the bit rate that requires to digitize the human voice ?
Assume 8 bits per sample.
Solution:
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz.
Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000 samples/s
Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits per sample
= 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 Kbps

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Channel Rate : Nyquist bit Rates, Shannon’s limit
Problem9: What signal-to-noise ratio is needed to put a T1 carrier on a 50-
kHz line?
Solution: Since the channel is Noisy, C = Blog2(1 + S /N)
1.544 × 106 = 50 X 103 log2 (1 + S/N) → 1 + S /N = 230 → S/N = 93 dB.
Note: The capacity of T1 carrier is 1.544 Mbps
Problem 10: A noiseless 4-kHz channel is sampled every 1 msec. Each
sample is represented with 16-bits, 1024-bits. What is the max. data rate?
Solution: A noiseless channel can carry an arbitrarily large amount of
information, no matter how often it is sampled. Just send a lot of data per
sample. For the 4kHz channel, make 8000 samples/sec.
If each sample is 16 bits, the channel can send 128 kbps.
If each sample is 1024 bits, the channel can send 8.2Mbps.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Channel Rate : Nyquist bit Rates, Shannon’s limit
Problem 11: The digital signal is to be designed to permit 160 kbps for a
bandwidth of 20 KHz. Determine (a) number of levels and (b) S/N ratio.
Solution:
(a) Apply Nyquist Bit Rate to determine number of levels.
Max. Data Rate ( or Channel Capacity) = 2 H log2V bits/Sec
→ 160×103 = 2×20×103 log2 (V)
→ M = 24, which means 4bits/baud.

(b) Apply Shannon capacity to determine the S/N ratio

C = B log2 (1+S/N)
→ 160×103 = 20×103 log2 (1+S/N)
→ S/N = 28 – 1 → S/N = 255
→ S/N = 24.07 dB.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 39

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Pulse Amplitude Modulation:
• Analog signal’s amplitude is sampled at regular intervals; result is a
series of pulses based on the sampled data.
• Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM) is then used to make the signal digital.

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Pulse Code Modulation:
• First quantizes PAM pulses; an integral value in a specific range to
sampled instances is assigned.
• Each value is then translated to its 7-bit binary equivalent
• Binary digits are transformed into a digital signal using line coding

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Digitization of Analog Signal:

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Line Encoding Techniques:
Bit Rate: The no. of bits(1s and 0s) transmitted in a second.
Baud Rate: The max. no. of times a signal level can change in a second.

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Line Encoding Techniques:

Figure: Example for Lack of synchronization

A good encoded digital signal must contain a provision for synchronization.

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Line Encoding Techniques:
Problem
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than
the sender clock. How many extra bits per second does the receiver
receive if the data rate is 1 Kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution

At 1 Kbps:
1000 bits sent ➔1001 bits received➔1 extra bps
At 1 Mbps:
1,000,000 bits sent ➔1,001,000 bits received➔1000 extra bps

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Line Encoding Techniques:

Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level.

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Line Encoding Techniques:

Figure: Classification of Polar Encoding

Polar encoding uses two voltage levels (positive and negative).

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Line Encoding Techniques:

In NRZ-L the level of the signal is dependent upon the state of the bit.
In NRZ-I the signal is inverted if a ‘1’ is encountered.
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Line Encoding Techniques:
Data Encoding Techniques:
1. NRZ-L(Non- Return-to- Zero):
Typically, binary ‘0’ → +ve Voltage; binary ‘1’ → -ve Voltage
The signal never returns to Zero voltage.
The value during a bit time is level voltage.
Used for short distances.

2. NRZ-I( NRZ, invert on ones): Constant voltage during bit time.

No transition → ‘0’
Transition from Low to High or High to Low → ‘1’

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Line Encoding Techniques:

Figure: Example of RZ Encoding

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Line Encoding Techniques:

Figure: Example of Manchester Encoding

In Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used for
both synchronization and bit representation.
Manchester: Transition at the middle of each bit period.
Low to High transition →1 High to Low transition → 0
Used in Ethernet and LANs
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Line Encoding Techniques:

Figure: Example of Differential Manchester Encoding

In differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is

used only for synchronization. The bit representation is defined by the
inversion or non-inversion at the beginning of the bit.
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Line Encoding Techniques:
Differential Manchester: Mid-bit transition is clocking only.
Transition at beginning of bit period → ‘0’
Absence of transition at the beginning of bit period →’1’
Used in Token Ring N/Ws

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Line Encoding Techniques:

Figure: Example of Bipolar Encoding

In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Line Encoding Techniques:
Problem: Represent the following bit streams using the various Line
Encoding Techniques that were discussed in the class:
a) 00110101 b) 11001010

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5
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques:
Multiplexing: Technique that allows the (simultaneous) transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.

Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the bandwidth

between multiple users.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques:
Types:
✓ Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
✓ Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
✓ Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
✓ Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
✓ Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each “user” or signal on a
medium.

✓ Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same time, each using different
frequencies.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Figure: Example of FDM

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Figure: Example of FDM

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Figure: Example of FDM

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Eg: Broadcast Radio and TV, Cable TV, and the AMPS cellular phone systems
✓ Analog signaling is used to transmits the signals.

FM:

Figure: Example of FDM

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Problem: Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be
multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there
is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?
Solution:
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the
required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Fig: Analog hierarchy

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Problem: The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two bands. The
first band of 824 to 849 MHz is used for sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is
used for receiving. Each user has a bandwidth of 30 kHz in each direction.
How many people can use their cellular phones simultaneously?
Solution:
Each band width = 25 MHz.

The no. of channels = 25 MHz/ 30 kHz

= 833.33

Note: In practical AMPS, the band is divided into 832 channels. Of these, 42
channels are used for control, which means only 790 channels are available
for cellular phone users.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 66

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
✓ TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate
digital channels into one high-rate one.

✓ Sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing available transmission

time on a medium among users.
✓ Digital signaling is used exclusively.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 67

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Interleaving: The process of taking a group of bits from each input line for
multiplexing.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 68

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Figure: Example of Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.
3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 69
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Figure: Example of Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 70

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Figure: Example for Time Division Multiplexing Types

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 71
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Figure: T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 72

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Figure: T-1 Carrier ( 1.544 Mbps)

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 73

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Figure: T-1 Frame Structure

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 74
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Table: DS and T line rates

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 75

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Problem: Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 Kbps and another with a
bit rate of 200 Kbps, are to be multiplexed.
1. How this can be achieved?
2. What is the frame rate?
3. What is the frame duration?
4. What is the bit rate of the link?
Solution:
1. Allocate 1 slot to the 1st channel and 2 slots to the 2nd channel.
• Each frame carries 3 bits.
2. The frame rate is 100k frames/sec because it carries 1 bit from the
first channel.
3. The frame duration is 1/100,000s= 10 us.
4. The bit rate is 100,000 frames/s x 3 bits/frame= 300 Kbps

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 76

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Problem: We have four sources, each creating 250 char/ sec. If the
interleaved unit is a character and 1 synchronizing bit is added to each
frame, find i) data rate of each source ii) duration of each character in
each source iii) frame rate iv) duration of each frame v) number of bits in
each frame vi) data rate of the link
Solution:
(i) Data rate of each source 2000 bps = 2 Kbps
(ii) Duration of each character in each source 1/250 s = 4 msec
(iii) Frame rate link needs to send 250 frames/sec
(iv) Duration of each frame 1/250 s = 4 msec
(v) Number of bits in each frame 4 x 8 + 1 = 33 bits
(vi) Data rate of the link. 250 x 33 = 8250 bps
3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 77
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel sends 100 bytes
/s and we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame traveling on the
link, the size of the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and the
bit rate for the link.
Solution: Each frame carries 1 byte from each channel; the size of each
frame, therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits.
Because each channel is sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte
from each channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second. The bit
rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 78

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Figure: Synchronous TDM

In Fig, the data rate for each one of the 3 input connection is 1 kbps. If 1
bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit),
what is the duration of (a) each input slot
(b) each output slot
(c) each frame
3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 79
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Solution:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that the bit
duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same
as bit duration).

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input time slot.
This means that the duration of the output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration of a frame is
3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.

Note: The duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an input unit.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 80

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Figure: Synchronous TDM

Fig. shows synchronous TDM with four 1Mbps data stream inputs and one
data stream for the output. The unit of data is 1 bit.
Find (a) the input bit duration
(b) the output bit duration
(c) the output bit rate
(d) the output frame rate.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 81

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Solution:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate: 1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.

b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or ¼ μs.

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration or 1/(4μs)
or 4 Mbps.

d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So the frame rate is
1,000,000 frames per second.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 82

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Problem: A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a time slot
of 2 bits.
Show the output with four arbitrary inputs.
What is the frame rate?
What is the frame duration?
What is the bit rate?
What is the bit duration?

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 83

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Solution:

The link carries 50,000 frames/sec since each frame contains 2 bits/channel.
The frame duration = 1/50,000 s or 20 μs.
Frame rate = 50,000 frames/sec and each frame carries 8 bits;
Bit rate = 50,000 × 8 = 400,000 bits or 400 kbps.
Bit duration = 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 μs.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 84

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Data Rate Management:
If data rates are not the same (with different data rates), we use three
strategies multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and pulse
stuffing.

Multilevel Multiplexing: used when the data rate of the input links are
multiples of each other.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 86

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Data Rate Management:
Multiple-slot Allocation: used when there is a GCD between the data rates.
The higher bit rate channels are allocated more slots per frame, and the
output frame rate is a multiple of each input link.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 87

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Data Rate Management:
Pulse Stuffing: used when there is no GCD between the links. The slowest
speed link will be brought up to the speed of the other links by bit insertion,
this is called pulse stuffing.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 88

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Data Rate Management:
Problem 1: Two channels , one with a bit rate of 190kbps and another with
a bit rate 180 kbps are to be multiplexed using pulse stuffing TDM with no
synchronization bits. Answer the following questions:
i. What is the size of a frame in bits?
ii. What is the frame rate?
iii. What is the duration of a frame?
iv. What is the data rate?

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 89

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Data Rate Management:
Solution: We need to add extra bits to the second source to make both
rates = 190 kbps.
Now we have two sources, each of 190 Kbps.
a. The frame carries 1 bit from each source. Frame size = 1 + 1 = 2 bits.
b. Each frame carries 1 bit from each 190-kbps source.
Frame rate = 190,000 frames/s.
c. Frame duration = 1 /(frame rate) = 1 /190,000 = 5.3 μs.
d. Output data rate = (190,000 frames/s) × (2 bits/frame) = 380 kbps.
Here the output bit rate is greater than the sum of the input rates (370
kbps) because of extra bits added to the second source.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 90

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Data Rate Management:
Problem 2: Four channels , two with a bit rate of 200kbps and two with a
bit rate 150 kbps are to be multiplexed using multiple slots TDM with no
synchronization bits. Answer the following questions:
i. What is the size of a frame in bits?
ii. What is the frame rate?
iii. What is the duration of a frame?
iv. What is the date rate?

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 91

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Data Rate Management:
Solution: The frame carries 4 bits from each of the first two sources and 3
bits from each of the second two sources.
a) Frame size = 4 × 2 + 3 × 2 = 14 bits.
b) Each frame carries 4 bit from each 200-kbps source or 3 bits from each
150 kbps.
Frame rate = 200,000 / 4 = 150,000 /3 = 50,000 frames/s.
c) Frame duration = 1 /(frame rate) = 1 /50,000 = 20 μs.
d) Output data rate = (50,000 frames/s) × (14 bits/frame) = 700 kbps.

We can also calculate the output data rate as the sum of input data rates
because there are no synchronization bits.
Output data rate = 2 × 200 + 2 × 150 = 700 kbps.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 92

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Problem 3: Figure shows a multiplexer in a synchronous TDM system.
Assume 1-bit is used for frame level synchronization. Show the output
stream?

Solution:

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 93

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Problem 4: Figure shows a demultiplexer in a synchronous TDM. If the
input slot is 16-bits long (no framing bits), show the each output bit
stream?

Solution:

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 94

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Data Rate Management:
Problem 5: 20 digital sources are multiplexed using synchronous TDM. Out
of which 5 are with a bit rate of 120 kbps, 10 with a bit rate 60 kbps, and the
last 5 with a bit rate of 110 kbps. Design a synchronous TDM for these
sources (The unit of data is 1 bit), and find:
a) The output frame rate?
b) The output data rate?
c) Efficiency of the system?

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 95

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Solution:

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 96

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Solution: a) 120,000 frame per sec
b) 120,000 * 15 =1.8 Mbps
c) (5*120 + 10*60 + 5*110)/ (15*120)
=0.972 Or 97.2%

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 97

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Problem 6: If 10 voice channels (each voice channel bandwidth is 4 kHz) are
multiplexed with 500 Hz of guard bands using FDM.
Calculate the required bandwidth.
Solution: To multiplex 10 voice channels, we need nine guard bands.
The required bandwidth is then B = (4 KHz) × 10 + (500 Hz) × 9 = 44.5 KHz

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 98

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Multiplexing
Problem 7: In GSM, 890 MHz to 915 MHz are used from Mobile Station to
Base Station. GSM uses TDMA/FDD with each channel bandwidth is 200
kHz. If no guard bands are used, find the number of users that they can
make call simultaneously.
Solution: 1000 simultaneous users

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 99

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
✓ WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
✓ Give each message a different wavelength (frequency)

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 100

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
✓ Easy to do with fiber optics and optical sources.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 101

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
✓ An advanced technique that allows multiple devices to transmit on the
same frequencies at the same time using different codes.
✓ Used for mobile communications
✓ Each mobile device is assigned a unique 64-bit code (chip spreading
code).
✓ To send a binary 1, mobile device transmits the unique code.
✓ To send a binary 0, mobile device transmits the inverse of code.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 102

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 103

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: Applications
✓ TDM
✓ Synchronous TDM (T-1, ISDN, optical fiber)
✓ Statistical TDM (LANs)

✓ FDM (cable, cell phones, broadband)

✓ WDM (optical fiber)

✓ CDM (cell phones)

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 104

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: OFDM

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 105

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: OFDM
• OFDM is referred to as a multi-carrier digital modulation method.

• Uses large number of narrow subcarriers.

Several hundreds of subcarriers compared to previous generation multi-

carrier systems.

Ex: HSPA (high speed packet access) system with a 20MHz overall
bandwidth, used 4 subcarrier of 5MHz each.

• Tightly packed in frequency domain with a subcarrier spacing that depends

on the sampling rate.

• Sub-carriers frequencies are orthogonal to each other, meaning that cross-

talk between the subchannels is eliminated and inter-carrier guard bands
are not required.
3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 106
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: OFDM

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 107

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: OFDM
Each subcarrier is modulated, QPSK ,16-QAM, 64-QAM etc.

All the modulated subcarriers are passed through IFFT to generate a time
domain signal.

The signal is superimposed on a RF carrier before transmission.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 108

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: OFDM
Cyclic prefix:

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 109

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: OFDM
Cyclic prefix:
Due to the signal propagation phenomena, like reflection or diffraction, a
receiver of a wireless medium can receive several delayed versions of the
same signal.

This creates ISI, Inter Symbol interference.

To overcome this, concept of Cyclic Prefix is used.

This makes the OFDM signal insensitive to time dispersion.

A cyclic prefix block copies a portion of the samples at the end of the time
domain symbol (at the IFFT output) to the beginning.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 110

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing Techniques: OFDM
Advantages of OFDMA:
• Efficient use of spectrum

• More resistant to frequency selective fading

• Better handling f ISI using cyclic prefix.

• Good protection against co-channel interference

Disadvantages of OFDMA:
• The OFDMA has high peak power average ratio

• High resolution ADC and DAC.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 111

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiplexing vs Multiple Access:
The multiplexing is combining a number of independent signals into a
composite signal suitable for transmission over a common channel
Multiple access means multiple users can access the channel or link.
Multiple access provides dedicated resources to the user (with a time
constraint) in comparison to the multiplexing which does not provide any
type of resources.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 112

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques:
Frequency
TDMA: Time CMDA: Code
Division Multiple Division Multiple
Access Access

FDMA: Frequency
Division Multiple
Access

Codes

Time

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 77

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: FDMA
Divides a communications channel into a number of equally spaced
frequency bands.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 78

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: FDMA
Advantages:
• Best suited for analog links
• Each station has its own frequency band, separated by guard bands
• Receivers tune to the right frequency
• reuse frequencies in non-adjacent cells
Disadvantages: Guard bands reduce the bandwidth utilization efficiency

Applications: AMPS ( Advanced Mobile Phone system )

DECT ( Digital European Cordless Telephone )

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 79

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: TDMA
Number of users access a single radio-frequency (RF) channel without
interference by allocating unique time slots to each user within each
channel.

• stations transmit data on same frequency, but at different times

• Needs time synchronization
• digital mode of transmission is best suited.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 80

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: TDMA
The transmissions are organized into frames.
✓ Each station transmit in its designated time slot in every frame.
✓ Rx stations receives all the bursts & removes data addressed to it.
✓ Every frame contains at least one reference burst transmitted by a station,
designated for synchronization purposes.
✓ Each time slot is separated from the adjacent slot by a guard time.
✓ The sizes of the time slots depend on the traffic requirement.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 81

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: TDMA

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 82

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: TDMA
CBR UW C

The preamble consists of three parts.

Carrier and bit time recovery (CBR) slot is used by receivers for recovering the
carrier and bit time essential for coherent demodulation.

Unique word (UW) is used for burst synchronization.

Control bits (C) contain information such as station identification and engineering
service messages for network management.

Trail bits allow synchronization of transmissions from mobile units.

Guard bits used to avoid overlapping with other bursts.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 83

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: TDMA in GSM
Each frequency band is 200 kHz wide. A GSM system has 124 pairs of simplex channels.
Each simplex channel is 200 kHz wide and supports eight separate connections on it, using time
division multiplexing(TDM).

Mobile station assigned to 890.4/935.4 MHz and time slot 2 wanted to transmit to the base station, it
would use the lower four shaded slots (and the ones following them in time), putting some data in each
slot until all the data had been sent.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 84

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: TDMA
Advantages:
- The capacity of the system is increased as only a single carrier is present at
any given time.
- mobiles can switch off power when not transmitting.
Disadvatages:
- adds both hardware and network complexity
- data need to be stored, compressed and transmitted during one (or more)
specific time slots
- synchronization overhead
- multipath interference on wireless links
Applications:
GSM ( Global System for Mobile )
US DC ( U. S Digital Cellular )
JDC ( Japanese Digital Cellular )

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 85

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: CDMA

Figure: Spread Spectrum Principle

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 86

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: CDMA
CDMA is a wireless communications technology that uses the principle of
spread spectrum communication.
There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal:
▪ Frequency hopping
▪ Time hopping
▪ Direct sequence
➢ CDMA is a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system

CDMA Features:
✓ All users use same frequency and may transmit simultaneously
✓ Narrowband message signal multiplied by wideband spreading signal, or
code word
✓ Each user has its own pseudo-code word.
✓ Rxs detect only the desired code word. All others appear as noise.
✓ Rxs must know Tx’s code word.
3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 87
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: CDMA

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 88

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: CDMA

Pseudo-Noise Spreading

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 89

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: CDMA
Advantages:
– hard to spy
– immune from narrowband noise
– no need for all stations to synchronize
– all cells can use all frequencies

Disadvantages :
– implementation complexity
– need for power control to avoid capture
– need for a large contiguous frequency band (for direct sequence)

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 90

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Multiple Access Techniques: CDMA

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 91

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques:
In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender and receiver.
Information may be switched as it travels through various communication
channels.
There are three typical switching techniques available for digital traffic.
1. Circuit Switching 2. Message Switching 3. Packet Switching

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 92

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Circuit Switching
• It connects the sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before communication can take
place.
Ex: Telephone switching equipment, establishes a path that connects the
caller's telephone to the receiver's telephone by making a physical
connection.
• The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a connection to
the destination.
• Once the connection has been initiated and completed to the
destination device, the destination device must acknowledge that it is
ready and willing to carry on a transfer.
• Once a connection is established, a dedicated path exists between both
ends until the connection is terminated.
• Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first established, but
there are no decisions made after that time.
3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 93
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Circuit Switching
Advantages:
• The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.

Disadvantages:
• Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds, more on
long- distance or international calls.) during which no data can be
transmitted.

• More expensive than any other switching techniques, because a

dedicated path is required for each connection.

• Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the channel is

not used when the connected systems are not using it.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 94

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Message Switching
• There is no need to establish a dedicated path between two stations.

• When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to

the message.

• The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety,

from node to node.

• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk,
and then transmits the message to the next node.

• This type of network is called a “store-and-forward network”.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 95

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Message Switching

The device needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity to store the

incoming messages, which could be long.
A time delay is introduced due to store- and-forward time, plus the time
required to find the next node in the transmission path.
E-mail is an example of a message switching system.

3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India 96

 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Message Switching
Advantages:
• Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-switched
systems, because more devices are sharing the channel.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be
temporarily stored in route.
• Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward
technique.
• Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of broadcast
address appended in the message.
Disadvantages
• Message switching is not compatible with interactive applications.
• Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must have
large disks to hold potentially long messages.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Packet Switching

• Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the

advantages of message and circuit switching and to minimize the
disadvantages of both.
circuit switching was designed for voice
packet switching was designed for data

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Packet Switching
•Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they can be stored
in main memory instead of disk, therefore access delay and cost are
minimized.
Also the transmission speeds between nodes are optimized.
• Packets are generally accepted onto the network on a first-come, first-
served basis. If the network becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or
discarded (``dropped'').

Packet size
• 180 – 2048 bits, designed by Bell Labs for communications and business
applications;
• 1,024 or 2,048 bits designed by Bell Labs for public data networking;
• 53 bytes for ATM switching.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Packet Switching
• In packet switching, the analog signal is converted into a digital bit
stream.
• That series of digital bits is then divided into packets.
• Each packet is appended with addresses of sender and receiver.
• They do not necessarily travel together;
• They need not travel sequentially.
• They don't even all travel via the same route.
• But eventually they arrive at the right point.

packets can be handled in

two ways:
Datagram
Virtual circuit

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Packet Switching
Datagram

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer

Switching Techniques: Packet Switching: Datagram

• Datagram packet switching is similar to message switching in that each
packet is a self-contained unit with complete addressing information
attached.
• This fact allows packets to take a variety of possible paths through the
network.
• So the packets, each with the same destination address, do not follow
the same route, and they may arrive out of sequence at the exit point
node (or the destination).
• Reordering is done at the destination point based on the sequence
number of the packets.
• It is possible for a packet to be destroyed if one of the nodes on its way is
crashed momentarily. Thus all its queued packets may be lost.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Packet Switching
Virtual Circuit

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
• In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established before
any data packets are sent.
• A logical connection is established when
➢ a sender send a "call request packet" to the Rx and
➢ the Rx send back an ACK packet "call accepted packet" to the sender if
the Rx agrees on conversational parameters.
• The conversational parameters can be maximum packet sizes, path to be
taken, and other variables necessary to establish and maintain the
conversation.
• Virtual circuits imply ACKs, flow control, and error control, so virtual
circuits are reliable.
• That is, they have the capability to inform upper-protocol layers if a
transmission problem occurs.
• In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not mean that this is a
dedicated path, as in circuit switching.
• A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for output over
a line.
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
• The difference between virtual circuit and datagram approaches:

➢ With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a routing
decision for each packet.
➢ It is made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.

VC's guarantees that:

➢ the packets sent arrive in the order sent
➢ with no duplicates or omissions
➢ with no errors (with high probability) regardless of how they are
implemented internally.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Event Timing

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Virtual Circuits vs. Datagram
• Virtual circuits
– network can provide sequencing and error control
– packets are forwarded more quickly
– Link failures causes set up of call again.
– Switches need to maintain information about flows they are handling.

• Datagram
– no call setup phase
– more flexible
– Design of Routing Table(RT) requires knowledge of N/W topology
– Size of RT increases as N/W size increases

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Physical Layer
Switching Techniques: Packet Switching
Advantages:
• Cost effective, because switching devices do not need massive
amount of secondary storage.
• Improved delay characteristics, because there are no long messages
in the queue(maximum packet size is fixed).
• Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as, busy or
disabled links.
• Many network users can share the same channel at the same time.
•Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by making optimal use
of link bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
• Protocols are typically more complex.
• If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.
• Packet-switched systems still can’t deliver the same quality as
dedicated circuits in applications requiring very little delay - like
voice conversations or moving images.
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 MISAC-1 [Link]. V SEM COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Take Home Assignment:
1. Discuss the features of various network topologies with advantages,
disadvantages, and example for each type.
2. Explain the features of various network connecting devices in detail.
3. Draw the ISO: OSI model, TCP/IP, and ATM reference models. Mention the
functions of each layer in detail.
4. Represent the following bit streams using the various Line Encoding
Techniques that were discussed in the class: 10111001
5. Write the features of different switching techniques along with their
advantages and disadvantages.

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 QUERIES ?

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3-Sep-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India