GOOD MORNING ☺

by
Dr. RAVILLA DILLI

[Link]
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10-Aug-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India

 Life Skills

1. Humble and respectful behavior attracts blessings from great souls.

2. One’s behavior depends on one’s attitude.

3. Therefore, we need to cultivate proper attitudes and behavior in the

company of good people.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Topics to be Discussed in this Section

Introduction: Uses of CNs, Types of CNs

Network Hardware
Network Software
Reference Models: ISO:OSI, TCP/IP, ATM
Network Standardization

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Introduction
What is a Computer/Communication Network(CN) ?
Why CNs ?
How to form a CN ?
A collection of autonomous computers interconnected (able to exchange
information)by a single technology.

The computers can be geographically located anywhere.

The interconnection may be Copper wire, OFC, Radio etc.,

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN
1. Business Applications: Resource sharing
Data available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical
location of the resource and the user.
Ex: a group of office workers share a common printer.

Sharing of Information: A company's information system as consisting of

one or more databases( stored in Servers).
Allow employees to access relevant information and documents instantly.

Fig: A N/W with two clients & one server(Client – Server Model)

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN
1. Business Applications: Resource sharing

Figure . The client-server model involves requests and replies.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN
1. Business Applications: Daily Communication
e-mail (electronic mail) which employees generally use.
Videoconferencing: Employees at distant locations can hold a meeting,
seeing and hearing each other and even writing on a shared virtual
blackboard.
Ex. MS Teams, Zoom, Google meet, WebEx, Zoho Meeting, Team Viewer
Meeting, etc.,
A powerful tool for eliminating the cost and time devoted to travel.

Business Electronically: Manufacturers can place orders electronically.

Ex: manufacturers of automobiles, aircraft, and computers, among
others, buy subsystems from a variety of suppliers and then
assemble the parts.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN
1. Business Applications: Business with consumers over the Internet.

Shopping from home : Online orders

Ex: Airlines, bookstores, Movie Tickets and music vendors etc.,

E-Commerce: Companies provide catalogs of their goods and services

online and take orders on-line.
Ex: grocery shops (Super Markets), Swiggy, Zomato, etc.,

1
10-Aug-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN
2. Home Applications: uses of the Internet for home users
i) Access to remote information.
ii) Person-to-person communication.
iii) Interactive entertainment.
iv) Electronic commerce.

i) Access to remote information:

Interactions b/w a person & a remote database.
• Information available about business, cooking, government,
health, history, hobbies, science, sports, travel etc.,
• on-line newspapers. [Link], [Link],
[Link] etc.,
• on-line digital library. [Link] [Link]

1
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN
2. Home Applications: uses of the Internet for home users
ii) Person-to-person communication:
chat room, in which a group of people can type messages for all to see.
Teenagers (MIT guys) playing multi-person on-line games.
• Internet to carry telephone calls, video phone, and Internet radio.
Ex: Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp etc.,

Fig: In a peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients and servers.

1
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN
2. Home Applications: uses of the Internet for home users

iii) Interactive entertainment: video on demand

• select any movie or TV program ever made, in any country, and have it
displayed on your screen instantly.

iv) Electronic commerce:

• shopping enables users to inspect the on-line catalogs of thousands of
companies.
• get an instant video on any product by just clicking on the product's
name.
• on-line technical support.
• pay bills, manage bank accounts, and handle investments electronically.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN
2. Home Applications: uses of the Internet for home users

Fig: Some forms of e-commerce.

Mobile Users: A W/L N/W in the conference area.

• MIT has installed W/L N/Ws on campus so students can sit under the
trees and consult the library's card catalog or read their e-mail, on-line
chat with friends etc.,

• W/L N/Ws in the military.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Uses of CN
[Link] Issues:
Networking has introduced new social, ethical, and political problems.
• N/Ws are newsgroups or bulletin boards whereby people can exchange
messages with like-minded individuals.
• If the subjects are restricted to Technical topics or Hobbies like cooking,
gardening, no problem.
• The trouble comes when newsgroups are set up on topics that people
actually care about, like politics, religion, or sex.
• live-and-let live view.
• Employee rights vs Employer rights Universities vs Students
Government vs Citizen
Identity theft is becoming a serious problem.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Types of CN
1. Transmission Technology 2. Scale
Based on Transmission Technology:
Broadcast N/Ws (Broadcasting, Multicasting) vs Point-to-Point N/Ws
(Unicasting).
Based on Scale ( based on physical size or range of N/W):

1. PANs
2. LANs
3. MANs
4. WANs
5. W/L N/Ws
6. Home N/Ws
7. Internetworks

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Types of CN
◼ Wide Area Networks (WANs), which span a very large geographical area,
such as from city to city or across countries and oceans. WANs are usually
operated by transmission service providers.
Network spread geographically (Country or across Globe) is called WAN
(Wide Area Network)
◼ Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs), which span a large area such as a city,
or company sites in different locations within the same city. MANs are
usually operated by organizations.
◼Local Area Networks (LANs), which span a limited area such as a company
complex, a building, a campus, or even a small office. LANs are usually
operated by a single organization.
Network in small geographical Area (Room, Building or a Campus) is called
LAN (Local Area Network)

Personal Area Networks (PANs): peripherals form a small network in a single

residential home.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Types of CN
LAN WAN
✓ Contains printers, servers and computers
✓ Two or more LANs connected
✓ Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10-100 Mbps
✓ Over a large geographic area
✓ Newer LANs operate up to 1000Gbps.
✓ Typically use public or leased
✓ Lower delays and Lower error rates. lines
✓ TelePhone lines
MAN
✓ Satellite
✓ Large network that connects
different organizations ✓ The Internet is a WAN

✓ Shares regional resources PAN

• Very small scale network
✓ A network provider sells time
• Range is less than 2 meters

• Cell phones, PDAs, MP3 players

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Types of CN

PAN Network:

Ex: A W/L N/W connecting a computer with its mouse, keyboard, Fax
machine and printer etc.,

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Types of CN
WAN:

Internet is an
example of WAN.

Also, Financial
Banking network,
ATM machines.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Wireless LAN Topologies
Wireless LAN:

Figure: Single-cell Wireless LAN (Infrastructure based)

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Wireless LAN Topologies
Wireless LAN:

Figure: Multi-cell Wireless LAN (Infrastructure based)

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Wireless LAN Topologies
Infrastructure
Fixed-wire replacement Ad hoc

AP

AP
10-20 m

Server Ad hoc Networks: Set up

temporarily to meet
Portable-to-fixed 50-100 m
Network
immediate need.
These are infrastructure
less.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Types of CN

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: It defines the way in which computers, printers, and
other communication devices are connected.
It describes the layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths used by
data transmissions.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: BUS
• Also called linear bus.
• One wire connects all nodes.
• .

• Terminator ends the wires.

Advantages:
– Easy to setup.
– Small amount of wires.
Disadvantages:
– Decreases performance with
increased traffic, no. of nodes.
– Easy to crash.
– Security is poor.

◼ Traditional Ethernet uses bus topology.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: STAR
• All nodes connect to a hub.
– Source sends packets to hub.
– Hub sends packets to destination.
– Each device need one port to connect to a hub.
– For connecting ‘N’ devices, total no. of cables
required is ‘N’.
Advantages:
– Easy to setup.
– Failing one cable will not crash the network.
Disadvantages:
– Central hub crashing downs the entire network.
– Uses lots of cable.

A switched Ethernet uses a star topology.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: RING
• It forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighboring devices.
• Data flow is unidirectional.
• Tokens are used to transmit data.
– Nodes must wait for token to send data.
A token frame travels around the ring, stopping at each node. If a node
wants to transmit data, it adds the data as well as the destination
address to the frame.
The frame then continues around the ring until it finds the destination
node, which takes the data out of the frame.

Examples: Token ring

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: RING
Operations in the Ring Topology:
• One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the
responsibility for performing the operations.
• To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the
transmission is done, the token is to be released for other stations to
use.
• When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in
the ring.
• There are two types of token release techniques: Early token
release releases the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed
token release releases the token after the ACK is received from the Rx.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: RING

Single ring – All the devices on the network share a single cable .
Dual ring – The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in both
directions.

Advantages:
– Time to send data is known.
– No data collisions.
Disadvantages:
– Slow, complexity of token manipulation. Figure: Dual ring
– Failure of a single node can cause the entire n/w to fail.
– Addition/removal of devices can disturb the whole topology.
– Less Secure.
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: TREE
Larger networks use the extended star topology also called tree topology.
• Hierarchical flow of data.
• Useful for WANs.

Advantages:
– Scalable
– Error detection and
Troubleshooting is
easier.
Disadvantages: Failure of the
hub/switch leads to
disconnection of the entire
branch.
Failure of central hub leads to
the failure of entire n/w.
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: MESH
Each device is connected to every other device in the network using a
point-to-point (P2P) connection.
It is used in WANs to interconnect LANs and for mission critical networks
like those used by banks and financial institutions.
If ‘N’ nodes in the n/w, there are (N-1) i/o ports at each device and N (N-
1)/2 physical links/channels in the n/w.
Full mesh: Each device has direct connection with all other devices in the
n/w.
Partial mesh: Few devices are similar to full mesh, other nodes are
connected only with few devices.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: MESH
It provides security and privacy.
Internet is a mesh network.
Advantages: It provides redundancy and fault tolerance for data deliveries.
Disadvantages:
◼ Lots of cable

◼ Expensive

◼ Hard to setup

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Topology: HYBRID
It is a combination of two or more topologies.
It inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included.

◼ Advantages
◼ Reliable because error detection
and troubleshooting are easy.
◼ Scalable and flexible.

◼ Disadvantages
◼ Design complexity

◼ Expensive

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
1. Network Interface Cards (NIC):
It provides a computer with a dedicated, full-time
connection to a network.

Network adapter
– Connects node to the media
– Unique MAC address

It implements the physical layer circuitry necessary for communicating with

a data link layer standard, such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi.

It represents a device and can prepare, transmit and control the flow of
data on the network.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
2. Repeater: Its an analog device and its job is to regenerate the signal over
the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network.

When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength.
It operates at physical layer (OSI layer 1) and transmits data bits over a
physical medium.
Repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.
It is a 2 port device.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
3. Bridge: It operates at data link layer (layer 2) and is used to connect
similar (works on same protocol) LAN segments.

It is a 2 port device.

It uses the MAC address information to make decisions regarding forwarding

data frames.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
3. Bridge: Bridge can isolate the data traffic.
Transparent Bridge: Connects two LANS works on same protocol.
Translation Bridge: connects two LANS operate on different protocols.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
3. Bridge: MAC address entries are stored in a bridge table on temporary
basis.
Each MAC address entry to the bridge table remains active as long as there
is periodic data traffic activity from that host on its port.

The entry into the table is deleted if the port becomes inactive.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
4. Hub: It is a multiport repeater and operates at layer 1.
Center of a star network
– All nodes receive transmitted packets
– Slow and insecure
A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example,
the connector in star topology which connects different stations.

Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.

If data comes from more than one device simultaneously, it leads to

collisions.

Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets
which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
5. Switch: It operates at Data Link Layer (Layer 2) and is used to interconnect
multiple similar or dissimilar LANs.
– Replacement for hubs
– Only intended node receives transmission
– Fast and secure

It is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
5. Switch: It can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes
it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and
forward good packets selectively to correct port only.

Switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains

same.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
6. Router: Router is a Network Layer (layer 3) device.
It routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
It has the capability to analyze and modify the data while transferring it over
a n/w, and it can send it to another n/w.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
6. Router: It is used to interconnect individual networks .
– Routes data packets through similar n/ws.
– Network is segmented by IP address.
– Connect internal networks to the Internet.
– Need configured before installation.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
6. Routers: Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on
routing the data packets.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
6. Routers:
It’s components include CPU, flash memory, RAM, Non-Volatile RAM,
console, and NIC.
It uses routing tables and finds the best path for sending the data packets.

Figure: Schematic diagram of a router

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
6. Routers: Routers filter the unwanted interference, perform data
encapsulation and decapsulation.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
7. Gateway: It connects two dissimilar n/ws.
This device sends local network traffic to other n/ws.
It connects n/ws by performing translation b/w different protocols and data
formats at the n/w boundary.
Companies may deploy gateways to connect the corporate LAN to the public
Internet or to link different internal networks.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
7. Gateway:
It connects two networks together that may work upon different networking
models.
They take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another
system.
Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network
layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
8. Firewall: It secures a n/w by deciding which data packets are allowed to
pass through a n/w.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
8. Firewall: It is a security device that can be a software program or a
dedicated network appliance.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
8. Firewall: It performs 3 security functions: packet filtering, stateful
inspection and acts as an application proxy.
Stateful inspection is a dynamic packet filtering that monitors the state of
active connections and uses this information to determine which n/w
packets to allow through the firewall.
There are 2 types of firewalls:
N/W-based firewall: usually it is a hardware that protects entire n/w.
Host-based firewall: usually a software that protects individual devices
known as hosts.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
9. Modem: It is used for conversion between analog and digital signals.

It modulates or demodulates the signal.

It maintains a dedicated connection with the ISP to get the internet
connection for home or business.
It also performs data compression, error correction and controls the flow of
information.
It speed-up the process of transmission of data by grouping the data and
send it in one go.
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
N/W Connecting Devices:
10: Registered Jack - type 45 (RJ45): a physical interface used for terminating
twisted pair type cables.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
I have the following projects in hand, students who find time to dedicate for
projects execution can approach me.

1. Design and modelling Reconfigurable intelligent surface assisted wireless

communication system towards 6G.
2. Localization of 5G users using AI techniques.
3. Detection of Human presence in 5G Radio environment using DL
techniques.
4. Enhance the channel state information in 5G using AI and ML Techniques.
5. Throughput analysis of 6G communication Link.

NOTE: The project execution will have hard timelines.

The above projects are mainly for students who are serious about the
research and publication of their work in Journals and Conferences.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Classification:
By Structure / Functional Relationship :
1. Client-Server [Link]-to-Peer (P2P)
Client-Server network Peer-to-peer (P2P) networks
• Nodes and servers share data roles. • All nodes are equal.
• Nodes are called clients. • Nodes access resources on other
• Servers are used to control access. nodes.

• Database software • Each node controls its own

resources.
– Access to data controlled by
server. • Most modern OS allow P2P n/ws.
• Server is the most important • Distributed computing is a
computer. followed.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Network Classification:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networking : It offers a quick way to tie all your
resources and people together.
Users can access information from and share it directly with others in the
network.
Users can easily share files and directories in a peer-to-peer network.

Client/Server Networking : Clients are connected to a centralized server.

The server provides centralized security, backup, and recover capability and
controls access to sensitive files and expensive peripherals.
A dedicated server improves data integrity, because the most current
version of a document will be saved in one location.
This type of network requires a network operating system.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
Skype: It is a P2P model and allows its users to place voice calls and send
text messages to other users of Skype clients.

Client-side operations:
• Login
• User search
• Start and end calls
• Media transfer
• Presence messages

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
Skype:

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
Skype:

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
Skype:

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
Gnutella: It is a public domain software used in decentralized P2P n/w that allows
users to share files across the Internet without having to use a central server.
Using this software, users can search for a file and if it found in others computer,
they can download.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
Kazaa: TCP connections b/w Peers and group leaders, also b/w some pairs
of group leaders.
Group leader tracks the content in all its children.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
BitTorrent: Make downloading as fast as possible and ignore search.
It enables fast downloading of large files using minimum Internet
bandwidth.
Unlike other download methods, it maximizes transfer speed by gathering
pieces of the file you want and downloading these pieces simultaneously
from people who already have them.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
BitTorrent:

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
BitTorrent:

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architectures:
BitTorrent:

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Client-Server Architectures:

clients

LAN
or WAN

network

Server Data

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Client-Server Architectures:
• Reliable, robust communication between the clients and server.

• Client/server cooperation
– started by the client

• Application processing is usually distributed between a client and the

server.

• Server controls services/data that the client accesses.

• Server handles conflicting requests.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Client-Server Architectures:
Examples:
• A ‘real’ ATM network
– the ATM machines are the clients (as before)

– the middle-tier servers provide certain processing

• checking balances, money transfer requests
• directing queries to the relevant back-end server

– back-end server(s)
• specialized by account type
• very robust concurrency control, transaction processing

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Client-Server Architectures:
HTTP: It is a client-server protocol for fetching resources such as HTML
documents.

It is the foundation of any data exchange on the Web.

The requests are initiated by the client (recipient), usually the Web browser
and server responds.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
WAN:

Fig : Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet

Hosts are connected by a Communication subnet.

Hosts are owned by customers, Subnet is owned operated by Internet Service
Provider (ISP).

Subnet: consists of Transmission lines( OFC, radio links, copper wire etc.,)
Switching Elements(Routers)

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
WAN:

Fig: A stream of Packets from sender to Receiver

Subnet uses “Store - and - Forward” (Packet - Switched) principle.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Wireless Networks:
1. System interconnection(Bluetooth) 2. Wireless LANs(IEEE 802.11)

3. Wireless WANs

Fig: Wireless WAN

Fig: (a) Bluetooth Configuration (b) Wireless LAN

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Home Networks:
Every device in the home will be capable of communicating with every
other device, and all of them will be accessible over the Internet.

Ex: 1. Computers(desktop PC, notebook PC etc.)

2. Entertainment (Smart TV, DVD, VCR, camera, stereo, MP3)
3. Telecommunications (Telephone, mobile phone, intercom, fax)
4. Appliances (microwave, refrigerator, clock, furnace, air cooler, lights).
5. Telemetry (smoke/burglar alarm, baby cam ).

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Physical Medium: Coaxial cable
Twisted-pair cabling • Similar to cable TV wire
• One wire runs through cable
• Most common LAN cable
• Shielded from interference
• Called Cat5 or 100BaseT • Speeds up to 10 Mbps
• Four pairs of copper cable twisted • Nearly obsolete
• May be shielded from interference
• Speeds range from
1 Mbps to 1,000 Mbps Fiber-optic cable
• Data is transmitted with light pulses
• Glass strand instead of cable
• Immune to interference
• Very secure
• Hard to work with
• Speeds up to 100 Gbps Wireless Media
• Data transmitted through the air
• LANs use radio waves
• Easy to setup
• Difficult to secure
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
Office automation
LAN Selections - Wired
Universities/hospitals
Factory automation
Star Closed systems
ISO
Ring
IEEE
Bus
Wired LAN
Hub/tree NBS
ECMA EIA
Fiber optic

Twisted pair

Carrier band

Headend
RF modem
Thin-wire Thick-wire CATV
EIA: Electrical Industries Association (USA)
ECMA: European Computer Manufacturers Association
NBS: National Bureau of Standards
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Hardware
LAN Selections - Wireless Airports
On-off
Old buildings Warehouses
keying
Hospitals Retail stores Pulse-position
Ad hoc modulation
Direct Multi-
Applications modulation subcarrier
Transmission Carrier modulation
Infrastructure
Wireless LAN schemes modulation
Spread
spectrum

CDMA Direct Sequence

Radio
Frequency hopping

Infrared IEEE ETSI (Hipper LAN)

CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access ETSI: European Telecom. Standards Institute
CSMA/CD: CSMA with Collision Detection FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
CSMA/CA: CSMA with Collision Avoidance TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software

1. Protocol Hierarchies

2. Design Issues for the Layers

3. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

4. Service Primitives

5. The Relationship between Services and Protocols

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
1. Protocol Hierarchies:

Fig: Layers, Protocols, and Interfaces

N/W Architecture: A set of layers and protocols.
Protocol Stack: A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer;
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
1. Protocol Hierarchies:
✓ N/Ws are organized as a stack of Layers or levels.

✓ Each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offers certain services to the

higher layers.

✓ The interface defines which primitive operations and services of the

lower layer available to the upper layer.

✓ For N/W designers the most important consideration is defining clean

interfaces b/w the layers.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
1. Protocol Hierarchies:
Why Layered architecture?
1. To make the design process easy by breaking unmanageable tasks into
several smaller and manageable tasks.

2. Modularity and clear interfaces, so as to provide compatibility between

the different provider’s components.

3. Ensure independence of layers, so that implementation of each layer can

be changed or modified without affecting other layers.

4. Each layer can be analyzed and tested independently of all other layers.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
1. Protocol Hierarchies:
Data/control exchanged via protocols:

A human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
req
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
Get [Link]
time?
2:00
time <file>

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
Services & Protocols:
✓ The basic elements of a layered model are services, protocols and
interfaces.

✓ A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer.

✓ Protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with a

peer entity.

✓ The interface defines which primitives operations and services the lower
layer offers to the upper layer adjacent to it.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
Service:
✓ A Service is a set of primitives(operations) that a layer provides to the
higher layer.

✓ The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform on

behalf of its users, but it says nothing to all about how these operations
are implemented.

✓ A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower

layer being the service provider and the upper layer being the service
user.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
Protocol:
✓ A Protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.

✓ A Protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the

packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a
layer.

✓ Entities use protocols to implement their service definitions.

✓ Entities are free to change their protocols at will, provided they do not
change the service visible to their users.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software

Fig: The philosopher-Translator-Secretory Architecture

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
1. Protocol Hierarchies:

Fig: Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
2. Design Issues for the Layers:
Addressing: To specify a specific destination among multiple.
Rules for data transfer: Half-Duplex or Full-Duplex
Logical Channels and their priorities
Error Control:
Error-Detecting and Error-Correcting codes
Loss of Sequencing:
What should be done with pieces that arrive out of order ?
Flow Control
Assembling & Disassembling:
What to do when processes insist on transmitting data in units that are
so small ?
Multiplexing & Demultiplexing
Routing

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
3. Connection-Oriented & Connectionless Services:
Connection-Oriented: Establish, Use & Release
Order is preserved
Reliable
Ex: ?
Connectionless: (Datagram Service)
Each message carries full Destination Address
Each message is independent
Order may not exist
Unreliable
Ex: ?
Which is faster ?
QoS: What do you mean by reliable service ?
How to achieve reliability ?
When Connection-Oriented ? When Connectionless ?
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
3. Connection-Oriented & Connectionless Services:

Fig: Six different types of Service

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
4. Service Primitives:

Fig: Service Primitives for implementing a simple Connection-Orientation Service

A service is a set of a Primitives(operations) available to a user process to
access the service.
The primitives tell the service to perform certain action or report on an
action taken by a peer entity.
The set of primitives are dependent on the nature of the service being
provided.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
4. Service Primitives:

Fig: Packets sent in a simple Client-Server interaction on a Connection-

Orientation N/W

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Software
5. Relation between Services & Protocols:
Services relate to the interface between layers, Protocols relate to the
packets sent between peer entities on different machines.

Fig: The Relationship b/w a Service and a Protocol

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model
The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model.

This model is called the ISO:OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference

Model (bcoz it deals with connecting open systems. i.e. systems that are
open for communication with other systems).

It was created to standardize the rules of networking in order for all

systems to be able to communicate.

In order for communication to occur on a networking using different device

drivers and protocol stacks, the rules for communication must be explicitly
defined.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model
The OSI model deals with the following issues:
• How a device on a network sends it’s data, and how it knows when or
where to send it ?

• How a device on a network receives it’s data, and how to know where to
look for it ?
• How devices using different languages communicate with each other ?
• How devices on a network are physically connected to each other ?
• How protocols work with devices on a network to arrange data ?

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model
The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are :

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward

defining internationally standardized protocols.

4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information

flow across the interfaces.

5. The no. of layers should be large enough so that more functions should
not be in the same layer and small enough so that the architecture does
not become complex.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model

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Physical layer:

It is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next.
It deals with the transfer of bits over a communication channel (ex: copper
wire pairs, radio, or optical fiber);
This layer is concerned about voltage levels and signal durations of bits '1'
and '0'.
It also concern with the set up and release of the physical connection.
The design issues deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, and
the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model
Data link layer (DLL):

DLL is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
It provides the transfer of frames (blocks of information) across a
transmission link that directly connects two nodes.
Flow regulation( needed to let the Tx know how much buffer space the Rx
has at the moment).
Broadcast N/Ws use Medium Access Control(MAC) sub layer to control
access to the shared channel.
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model

Figure: Hop-to-hop delivery

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model
OSI LAN
LAYERS LAYERS

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport Higher layers

Logical link control
Network (LLC)
Medium access control
Data link
(MAC)
Physical Physical (PHY)

Figure: Layers of LAN and OSI Model

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model

Network layer:

It is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host
to the destination host.
It provides the transfer of data in the form of Packets across the
communication network.
Routing is the procedure used to select a path across the network.
Congestion Control: controlling the traffic to avoid congestion in the n/w.
Quality of Service (QoS): Minimum delay, maximum bandwidth, less jitter,
maximum throughput.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model

Figure : Source-to-destination delivery

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model

Transport layer:

It is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.

It delivers messages from a session entity in the source machine to a session

entity in the destination machine (called “End-to-End” or “process-to-
process” message transfer).
For Connection-oriented: It carries out error detection and recovery, and
sequence and flow control.
For connectionless service: It provides the appropriate address information;
It may be called for segmentation and reassembly.
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model

Figure : Reliable “process-to-process” delivery of a message

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Session layer:

It is responsible for dialog control, token management, and synchronization.

It allows users on different machines to establish sessions b/w them and
control the manner in which data is exchanged.
Dialog Control: keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit.
Token Management: preventing two parties from attempting the same
critical operation at the same time.
Synchronization: check pointing long transmissions to allow them to continue
from where they were after a crash.
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model
Presentation layer:

It is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

It converts the machine-dependent information to machine-independent.

It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
Ex: Different computers use different codes to represent characters, integers
etc.,

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model
Application layer:

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

It provide services required by applications that involve in communications.
Eg: HTTP (basis for the WWW)
When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page to
the server using HTTP, the server sends the page back.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI Reference Model

Figure: Data Encapsulation and Decapsulation

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model

Fig: The TCP/IP Reference Model

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model

Fig: Protocol and Networks in the TCP/IP Model

TELNET is a user command and an underlying TCP/IP Protocol for accessing remote
computers.
FTP: File Transfer Protocol SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

DNS: Domain Name Server TCP: Transfer Control Protocol

UDP: User Datagram Protocol IP: Internet Protocol
ARPANET: Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
IP: Internet Protocol
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
IGMP: Internet Group Management Protocol
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
SCTP: Stream Control Transmission Protocol
DNS: Domain Name System

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Host – to – Network Layer: Host is connected to the network using some
Protocol so that it can send IP packets to it.
It varies from host to host and N/W to N/W.

Internet Layer: “The job of the Internet layer is to deliver IP Packets to the
destination.”

Packet routing ,Congestion avoidance are the functions here;

Permits hosts to inject packets into network and have them travel
independently to the destination.
Its job of higher layers to rearrange the packets for in-order delivery.

Internet Protocol(IP): It defines packet format.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Transport Layer: Allows peer entities on the source and destination hosts
to carry on a conversation.
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP): Reliable, Connection-oriented Protocol.
It allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered
without errors on any other machine in the internet.
It also handles Flow Control.

2) User Datagram Protocol(UDP): Unreliable, Connectionless Protocol.

Used in prompt deliveries like transmission of Speech or Video.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Application Layer: Contains higher level Protocols.
FTP(File Transfer Protocol ): used to transfer files from one host to
another host .
SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol ): For e-mail transmission across IP
networks.
HTTP(Hypertext Transfer Protocol ): To access Web pages from the Web
server.
DNS( Domain Name System): is a hierarchical distributed naming system
for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a
Private Network.
TELNET: A Terminal a Emulation program for TCP/IP N/Ws such as the
Internet.
Used to provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communications
facility using a virtual terminal connection.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Example: A private internet

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Communication at the physical layer:
Legend Source Destination
A R1 R3 R4 B
Physical Physical
layer layer
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

011 ... 101

01
1.
..
10
1

011 ... 101 011 ... 101

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Communication at the data link layer:
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Communication at the network layer:
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

D3 H3
Datagram

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Communication at the Transport layer:
A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B
Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Communication at the Application layer:
A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Addressing:
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP
protocols:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Application-Specific Addresses

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Addressing:

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model

1 packet
87 10 Data accepted
87 10 Data

Figure 1 Example 1: physical addresses

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Example 1: In Figure 1 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a
node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (a
LAN).
At the DLL, this frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header. These
are the only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other
information needed at this level.
As the figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender,
and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver. The DLL at the
sender receives data from an upper layer. It encapsulates the data in a
frame. The frame is propagated through the LAN.
Each station with a physical address other than 87 drops the frame because
the destination address in the frame does not match its own physical
address. The intended destination computer, however, finds a match
between the destination address in the frame and its own physical address.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Example 2:
LANs use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal
digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model

20 10 A P Data 20 10 A P Data 33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed

95 66 A P Data 95 66 A P Data
33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed

Figure 2 Example 3: logical addresses

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Example 3: Figure 2 shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting
three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses
(logical and physical) for each connection.
In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has
only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks. So each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection. Although it may be obvious that each router must have a
separate physical address for each connection, it may not be obvious why it
needs a logical address for each connection.
The computer with logical address A and physical address 10 needs to send
a packet to the computer with logical address P and physical address 95.
We use letters to show the logical addresses and numbers for physical
addresses, but note that both are actually numbers, as we will see in later
chapters.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model

A Sender Receiver P

Data Data
a j Data a j Data

A P a j Data A P a j Data

H2 A P a j Data H2 A P a j Data

Internet

Figure 3 Example 4: port numbers

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : TCP/IP Reference Model
Example 4: Figure 3 shows two computers communicating via the Internet.
The sending computer is running three processes at this time with port
addresses a, b, and c.
The receiving computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate
with process j in the receiving computer.
Note that although both computers are using the same application, FTP, for
example, the port addresses are different because one is a client program
and the other is a server program.

NOTE: The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the logical and
port addresses usually remain the same.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : OSI vs TCP/IP Reference Models
OSI TCP/IP

We can distinguish Service, Interface, Protocol Can’t

Wonder of Wonders !
Model exist before invention of Protocols Vice versa

7 Layers 4 Layers
N/W Layer

Supports Connection-oriented only Connectionless

Connectionless
Transport Layer

Only Connection-oriented Supports Connection-oriented

Connectionless

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Critique of the TCP/IP Model and Protocols:
1. It doesn’t clearly distinguish the concepts of Service, interface, and
Protocol.
2. TCP/IP model is not general.( It poorly suited to describe protocol stack
other than TCP/IP).
3. The host-to- network layer is not really a layer in the context of layered
protocols.
4. No differentiation b/w Physical and Data link layers.

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Hybrid Reference Model:

✓ The OSI model is useful for discussing Computer N/Ws but OSI
Protocols have not become popular.

✓ TCP/IP model is practically nonexistent, but Protocols are widely used.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : ATM Reference Model
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) was going to solve all the N/Wing and
Telecommunications problems by merging voice, data, cable TV, Telegraph etc.,
ATM was much more successful than OSI.
ATM Virtual Circuits

Fig: A Virtual Circuit

Fig: ATM Cell

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✓ ATM N/Ws are connection-oriented.
✓ Once the call is established, Data is transmitted in terms of “Cells”.
✓ All Cells follow the same route to the destination.
✓ Cell delivery is not guaranteed but order is guaranteed.
✓ Header contains virtual connection identifier (VCI); Its easy for a router
to know how to route each incoming cell.
✓ Bcoz of fixed Cell size, its easy to build H/W.
✓ Incoming Cell can be copied to multiple o/p lines.
✓ Small Cells don’t block any line for very long time, QoS is guaranteed.
✓ Common ATM speed is 155.22 Mbps.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : ATM Reference Model

Fig: Layered Architecture of ATM Model

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Physical Layer: Deals with Physical medium: Voltages, bit timing etc.,
ATM has been designed to be independent of the transmission medium.

PMD: Sublayer interfaces to the actual cable.

It moves the bits on and off and handles bit timing.
TC: Sends Cells as a string of bits to the PMD layer. At the receiver,
it converts bit stream into Cells.

ATM Layer: Deals with Cells generation and Cell transport.

Defines the layout of a Cell and format of the header.
Deals with establishment and release of virtual circuits.
Congestion Control.

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ATM Adaption layer: Allow users to send packets larger than a Cell.
ATM interface segments these packets, transmits the Cells individually, and
reassembles them at the other end.

SAR: Breaks up packets into Cells on the transmission side and vice versa at
the destination.
CS: offers different kinds of services to different applications.
(Ex: File transfer, Video on demand etc.,)

User Plane: Deals with data transport, flow control, error correction etc.,
Control Plane: Deals with Connection management.
Layer & Plane Management: Functions related to resource management
and interlayer coordination.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : ATM Reference Model
ATM Layers and Sublayers:

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Standardization
Spectrum Assignments &Regulation
✓ The frequency spectrum is a finite and valuable resource.
Regulatory Bodies:
Allocation of spectrum space
Issuing licenses
Setting standards,
Policing the airwaves
In United States: 1) FCC (Federal Communications Commissions)
2) NTIA(National Telecommunications and Information
Administration) for Govt., & military services.

✓ In India, TRAI(Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) was established on

20 Feb1997 .
✓ TRAI is the independent Regulator of the Telecommunications business
in India.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Standardization
TRAI recommended for Auction amount 5.77 Lakh Crores towards 8,293.95
MHz frequency

At 700 MHz band, 1 MHz = 6,568 Crore

For 5G, 3.3 – 3.6 GHz, 1 MHz = 492 Crores

Max. Frequency band per company = 100 MHz

Reliance Jio has paid Rs. 7864 crores as 1st installment. (Total amount is Rs.
88078 crores)

Bharti Airtel has paid Rs. 8312.4 crore for 5G spectrum. (Total amount is Rs.
43084 crores).

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R. Dilli, "Analysis of 5G Wireless Systems in FR1 and FR2 Frequency Bands," 2020 2nd International Conference on Innovative Mechanisms for
Industry Applications (ICIMIA), Bangalore, India, 2020, pp. 767-772, doi: 10.1109/ICIMIA48430.2020.9074973.
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Standardization

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Standardization

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS : Network Standardization
ITU(International Telecommunications Union) is an International
Organization which brings the various countries together to discuss how the
frequency spectrum is to be divided and shared.

ITU has three main sectors:

1. Radio communications Sector (ITU-R).
2. Telecommunications Standardization Sector (ITU-T).
3. Development Sector (ITU-D).
ISO(International Standards Organisation)
ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
DIS (Draft International Standard)
NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology)
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

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1
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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Text Books
[1] Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, 5th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill ”.

[2] Alberto Leon-Garcia and Indra Widjaja, “Communication Networks: Fundamental

Concepts and Key Architectures”, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill.

[3] Jean Walrand, Pravin Varia, “High Performance Communication Networks”, 2nd
Edition, 2009.

[4] Sumit Kasera and Pankaj Sethi, “ATM Networks Concept and Protocol”, Tata
McGraw Hill Publication, 2006.

[5] William Stallings “Data & Computer Communication,” 7th Edition, Prentice Hall

[6] Rajiv Ramaswami, Kumar N. “Optical Networks” Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 2nd
Edition, 2008.

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 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

My Contact
Dr. RAVILLA DILLI

Cabin No.54, FC-IV, 0-Floor, AB-5, MIT, Manipal.

Contact No : +91 9035190124

Mail Id : [Link]@[Link]

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10-Aug-24 Dr. RAVILLA DILLI, ECE, MIT, Manipal, India