INDEX

[Link] Determine the internal diameter and depth of a cylindrical container using a
Vernier caliper and find its capacity. Verify the result using a graduated cylinder.

2. To Determine the diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge.

3. To Determine the radius of curvature of a concave mirror using a spherometer.

4. To Determine the specific heat of a solid using the method of mixtures.

5. To find the weight of a given body using the parallelogram law of vectors.

6. To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using a sonometer resonating with a given tuning fork. Use the graph
to determine the mass per unit length of the string.

7. To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and find
its focal length (f) by plotting graph between 1/u and 1/v.

8. To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a

graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

9. To find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the
resistivity (specific resistance) of its material.

[Link] determine the resistance of a galvanometer by a half-deflection method and to

find its figure of merit.
 Exeperiment No.1
Aim
To Determine the internal diameter and depth of a cylindrical container using a
Vernier caliper and find its capacity. Verify the result using a graduated cylinder.

Material Required
A Vernier callipers, a calorimeter, a graduated cylinder, a glass slab.
Procedure
What is least count?
The least count is defined as the smallest change in the measured quantity which
can be resolved on an instrument's scale.
Information
The least count of Vernier callipers = Least count of Vernier callipers =

1. Observe the divisions on the Vernier scale are smaller than those on the main scale.
The difference between one main scale division and one Vernier division is called
Vernier constant or least count of the Vernier callipers.
2. Observe the number of Vernier divisions(n) which match against one a
smaller number of divisions of main scale (n-1).
Formula used
3. Calculate the least count:
1 division of Vernier scale = (n-1)/n division of main scale
Least count = 1 main scale division - 1 Vernier scale division
= 1 main scale division - (n-1)/n main scale division
= 1/n main scale division
Diagram

Observations
Determination of the least count of Vernier callipers 1 M.S.D = 1 mm
10 V.S.D = 9M.S.D
∴1 V.S.D = 9/10 M.S.D = 0.9 mm
The least count of Vernier callipers (V.C) = 1 M.S.D - 1 V.S.D = (1-0.9) mm = 0.1
mm = 0.01 cm

Table For Internal Diameter (D)

Mean observed diameter = d'= 6.25 cm

Mean corrected depth = d = d' + zero correction
Mean corrected depth = d = 6.25 cm
Radius = 6.25/2 = 3.12 cm
 Table for the depth (d)

Mean observed depth = h '= 9.35 cm

Mean corrected depth = h = h' + zero correction
Mean corrected depth = h = 9.35 cm
Calculation
Volume of Cylinder
The volume of a cylinder is given by the relation:
V = nr2h = π(d/2)2h = 1/4 x π d2h
Volume = 3.14 x (3.12)2 × 9.35
Volume = 28,579 cm3
Result
The volume of the beaker is 28,579 cm3.
Precautions
1. Apply machine oil or grease to make the Vernier scale slide smoothly over the
main scale.
Precautions
1. Apply machine oil or grease to make the Vernier scale slide smoothly over the
main scale.
2. To avoid the damage to threads, do not exert more pressure on the Vernier
screw.
3. To avoid errors due to parallax, keep the eye directly over the division mark.
4. The significant figures and units used in observations must be correct.
Sources of Error
1. Not accounting for the zero error in the instrument.
2. Avoid gaps and undue pressure with respect to the placing of Vernier callipers.
 Exeperiment No.2
Aim
To Determine the diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge
Materials Required
1. Screw gauge
2. Wire
3. Half-meter scale
4. Magnifying glass
Formula Required
Least count is given as:

If a screw gauge has a pitch of 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale then
the least count is given as:

Diagram

Procedure
1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D).
2. Determine and record the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.
3. To find the zero error, bring the plane face B and A near. Repeat and record this
for three times. Record zero error as nil if there is no error.
4. Move face B away from face A. using a ratchet head R, move the face A toward: 8/38
face B lengthwise and stop when R turns without moving the screw.
5. Linear scale reading (L.S.R) is recorded by noting down the [Link] visible and
uncovered divisions of linear scale.
6. Let n be the no. of divisions of the circular scale lying on the reference line.
7. To measure diameter in a perpendicular direction, repeat steps 5 and 6 by rotating the wire
90°
8. For the entire length of wire, repeat steps 4,5,6 and 7 for five different positions
and record the observations.
9. Find the total reading and also zero correction.
[Link] the mean of different values of diameter.
[Link] a half-meter scale, measure the length of the wire. Repeat this step three
times and record the readings.
Observations
1. Determination of the least count of the screw gauge L.S.D = 1 mm
2. Number of full rotations given to screw = 4Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm
Hence, pitch p = 4 mm/4 = 1 mm
No. of divisions on circular scale = 100
Hence, the least count = 1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm

Calculation
Mean value of diameter =0.026+0.027+0.023+0.024+0.028
5
Mean = 0.0256 cm
Result
The diameter of given wire = 0.0256 cm
Precautions
1. There shouldn't be any friction while moving the screw.
2. The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K to avoid
undue pressure.
3. For zero correction proper sign should be noted.
4. To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the same
direction.
5. The diameter of the wire should be measured at each place in two perpendicular
directions and mean should be taken.
6. Along the entire length of the wire, readings should be taken at five different
places.
7. Avoid errors because of parallax.
Sources Of Error
1. There might be friction in the screw.
2. There might be a back-lash error in the screw gauge.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be equally divided.
4. There might not be uniformity in the wire.
 Exeperiment No.3
Aim
To Determine the radius of curvature of a concave mirror using a spherometer
Materials Required
1. Spherometer
2. Convex surface
3. A big size plane mirror
Formula Used
What is the least count of a spherometer?
pitch of the spherometer screw
Least count of the spherometer =
no. of divisions on the circular scale
The least count of the spherometer is 0.01 mm.
Procedure
[Link] get the three pricks of the spherometer, press the spherometer gently on the
practical note-book by lifting the central screw and mark these pricks as A, B,
and C.
[Link] the points A, B, and C to form a triangle and measure the distance
between these points.
3. Note the distances between AB, BC, and CA and take their mean.
4. Find the value of the pitch which is the vertical scale division.
5. Record the pitch and least count of the spherometer.
6. Lift the screw sufficiently upwards.
7. Place the spherometer on the convex surface so that all the three legs rest
On it.
8. Turn the screw gently downwards till it touches the convex surface.
9. Let a be the reading taken from the circular scale which is in line with the
vertical scale.
[Link] remove and place the spherometer on the plane mirror.
[Link] n1 be the no. of rotations completed by the disc when it is moved
downwards.
[Link] rotating the disc till the tip of the screw touches the plane surface of
the mirror.
[Link] b be the reading of the circular scale which is in line with the vertical scale.
[Link] the last incomplete rotation, find the number of a circular scale division.
[Link] steps 6 to 14 three times and record the observations.
Observation
Least count of spherometer
1 pitch scale division = 1 mm
No. of full rotations given to screw = 5
Distance moved by the screw = 5 mm
Hence, pitch, p = 5mm/5 = 1 mm
Number of divisions on circular (disc)scale=100
Hence,least count=1mm/100=0.01mm=0.001 mm

Calculation
h1+h2+h3
Mean value of
3
0.03+0.04+0.035
Mean value =
3
Mean = 0.035
Radius of curvature of a concave mirror

Result
The radius of the given convex surface is 76.2cm.
Precautions
1. The movement of the screw should happen without any friction.
2. To avoid back-lash error, the screw should be moved in the same direction.
3. Avoid excess notation.
Sources of error
1. There might be friction in the screw.
2. There might be a back-lash error in the spherometer.
3. The divisions between the circular scale may not be of equal size.

4. Exeperiment No.4
Aim
To determine the specific heat of a solid using the method of mixture.
Material Required
Calorimeter with insulated box and stirrer, heating arrangement, brass bob, two
thermometers, measuring glass cylinder, cotton thread, spring balance to find the
mass of bob.

Procedure
1. Put two thermometer A and B in a beaker containing water and note their reading. Take
one of them, say A to be standard and find the correction to be applied to the other, say
B.
2. Put thermometer B in copper tube of hypsometer containing the power of given
solid. Put sufficient water in hypsometer and place it on a burner.
3. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer and lid over it by the physical balance. Record it.
4. Fill about half of calorimeter with water at about temperature 5 to 8℃ below room
temperature. Now, weigh it again and record it.
5. Heat the hypsometer about 10 minutes till the temperature of solid remains steady.
6. Note the temperature of water in the calorimeter. Now, transfer the solid from
hypsometer to the calorimeter quickly. Stir the contents and record the final
temperature of the mixture.
7. Remove the thermometer A from calorimeter and weigh the calorimeter with its
contents and lid.

Observation
1. Least count of measuring cylinder = 25 ml
2. Least count of spring balance = 1 gm wt.
3. Mass of brass bob mb = 83.7 gm
4. Mass of calorimeter and stirrer = mc = 45.5 gm
5. Least count of thermometer = 0.2 degrees
6. Initial temperature of water in the calorimeter = t1 32.5 ℃
7. Temperature of boiling water = t3 = 100 ℃
8. Final temperature of water and bob = t2= 38 ℃
9. Specific heat of copper = Sc (from the table) = 0.093 Cal g -1 ℃-1.
[Link] of cold water in the calorimeter = 60 ml (as given in the procedure) mass
of cold water = 60g (density of water =1 g/mL).

Calculation
Heat given by hot brass bob = mb x S x (t3-t2) cal.
(ii) Heat taken by water in calorimeter = 60 × 1 x (t 2 –t1 )cal.
{Specific heat of water =1 Cal g-1 o C-1 }
(iii) Heat taken by calorimeter = mc x Sc x (t2-t1 )cal. We have from method of
mixtures, Heat given by hot body = heat taken by cold body mb x S × (t3 –t2)= {60 +
mc x Sc} (t2-t1)

Precautions
1. Sufficient solid power should be taken to cover the tip of thermometer properly.
2. Sufficient water should be taken in hypsometer.
3. Solid should be dropped quickly and gently.
4. Calorimeter should be polished from outside to avoid excessive radiation losses.
5. Temperature of cold water should not be below the dew point.
Sources of Error
1. Some heat is lost while transferring hot solid into calorimeter.
2. Some heat is lost in conduction, convection and radiation.
3. The bulbs of the thermometer may not be well inside the solid.

Exeperiment No.5
Aim

To find the weight of a given body using the parallelogram law of vectors.

Material Required
Parallelogram law of forces apparatus (Gravesand's apparatus), plumb line, slotted
weights, thin strong thread, white drawing, paper sheet, drawing pins, mirror strip,
pencil, set square/ protractor, a body whose weight is to be determined.
Procedure
1. Set up the Gravesand's apparatus with its board vertical and with the help of a
plumb line.
2. Oil the pulleys P1 and P2 if they are not friction-less.
3. With the help of drawing pins, fix the white sheet on the board.
4. Let O be the knot made from three-piece of strong thread.
5. Let P and Q be the weights that are tied at both the ends of the hanger and S bu
the given body tied to the third end.
6. Let the third weight S be vertically in the middle of the board and weights P and Q
are passed over the pulley.
7. Junction O should be maintained at equilibrium by adjusting weights P and Q.
8. Disturb the weights P and Q and leave them free.
9. The position of junction O will be closer to the earlier position.
[Link] a scale, 1 cm = 50 g, OA = 3 cm and OB = 3 cm to represent P =150g
and Q = 150g.
11.R is represented by completing the parallelogram OACB and by joining OC witl 19/38
the help of set squares.
[Link] OC is measured, it comes to 3.9 cm.
13.P and Q can be changed for different sets.
[Link] using spring balance, find the weight of the wooden box.
Observation
Least count of spring balance=100g
Weight of unknown body by spring balance=150 g

Unknown weight ,S=150 g

Mean unknown weight,
 = 150 g
Result
The unknown weight of the given body =150 g
Precautions
1. The board should be stable and placed verticle.
2. There shouldn't be any friction in the pulleys.
3. The board or the table should not be in touch with the hangers.
4. The middle of the paper should have junction O.
5. When the weights are at rest, the points should be marked.
6. A sharp pencil should be used to mark the points.
7. To show the direction of forces, arrows should be marked.
8. To make a fairly big parallelogram, a proper scale should be taken.
Sources of Error
1. There might be friction in the pulleys.
2. Weights might not be accurate.
3. Points marked may be correct.
4. Weight measured by spring balance may not be accurate.

Exeperiment No.6
Aim
To study the relation between the length of a giunit length of the string.
Materials Required
1. A sonometer
2. A set of eight tuning forks
3. 1/2 kg hanger
4. Seven 1/2 kg slotted weights
5. Rubber pad
6. Paper rider
7. Metre-scale
8. Screw gauge
Procedure
1. Place the sonometer with a load of 4 kg on the table as shown in the above diagram.
2. Frictionless pulley should be used for the experiment.
3. The hanger should carry a maximum weight that is suitable for it.
4. To have a maximum length of the wire, move the wooden bridges accordingly.
5. From the set of tuning fork, select 256 Hz fork and strike it against the rubber pad
to make it vibrate. After striking the fork, bring it near your ear.
6. Reduce the distance between the wooden bridges as the frequency from the wire
is less. Check for the frequencies again.
7. The length of the wire AB should be reduced continuously until the frequency of
the wire becomes equal to the frequency of the tuning fork.
8. Place a V shaped paper rider R in the middle of the wire. Strike the tuning fork
against the rubber pad and touch the lower end of the handle with the sonomete 22/38
board. The wire AB will start to vibrate and the rider R falls off the wire AB.
9. Record the increase in the length of the wire under "length increasing" in the
table.
[Link] the observations in a tabular form.
Observations
Constant frequency of tuning fork,v = 256 Hz
Variation of length with tension

Calculations

Plot the graph between T and 12 , taking T along the x-axis and 12 along the y-axis.
The graph will be a straight line.
Result
1. We found that 12 /T = constant.
2. From the graph, it is concluded that T ∞| 2 for constant frequency v and it
corresponds to the formula:

This verifies the law of tension of transverse vibrations of strings.

Precautions
1. Frictionless pulleys should be used.
2. The wires should be of uniform cross-section and kinkless.
3. The maximum load on the wire should not exceed the elastic limit.
4. Soft rubber pad should be used to strike the tuning forks.
5. For calculations, the mean of length decreasing and increasing should be used.
6. While transferring the vibrations, the lower end of the handle should be touch
gently to the sonometer board.
7. The load should include hanger weight too.
8. After the experiment, the load should be removed.
Sources of Error
1. Frictionless pulley might not be used.
2. The rigid and uniform cross-sectional wire might not be used.
3. Correct weights are not used.
4. Sharpe wooden bridges might not be used.
 Exeperiment No.7
Aim
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and find its
focal length (f) by plotting graph between 1/u and 1/v.

Material Required
Concave mirror, optical bench with three uprights, mirror holder, two pins, knitting
needle, metre rod, spirit level.

Ray Diagram

Optical Bench

Procedure
Determination of bench-correction
1. Place the knitting needle along the metre scale. Read the position of its two
ends, avoiding error due to parallax. Find the length of the knitting needle I.
2. Using knitting needle, adjust the object-pin, so that the distance between the
pole of the mirror and the tip of the pin is I.
3. Find bench correction (I-11) for pin A.
4. Repeat the same procedure for image pin 'B' also.

Determination of approximate focal length of the mirror

1. Take out the mirror from mirror-holder and hold it in such a way so that a clear
distinct image of a distant object is obtained on the wall.
2. Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall with the help of a metre
 scale. This gives the approximate focal length, f1 of the mirror.
Determination of v for different values of u
1. Fix the mirror again in the mirror-holder.
2. Fix the object-pin A at a point between, f1 and 2f1 but so that looking into the
mirror, you will see a clear real, inverted and highly enlarged image of A.
3. Position the image-pin B beyond 2 f1, so that there is no parallax between the
tip of B and the tip of image of A.
4. Plot a graph with 1/u on x-axis and 1/v on y-axis, taking scone scale on both
axes and start from zero on either axes.
5. Read the intercept on y-axis. Reciprocal of it gives the focal length.
Observations
The rough focal length of the given concave mirror = - 18 cm
The actual length of the knitting needle, x = 30.1 cm
Observed distance between the mirror and object needle when knitting needle is
placed in between them, y = 31.5 cm
Observed distance between the mirror and image needle when knitting needle is
placed in between the, z = 43.1 cm
Index correction for the object distance, u = x - y = ± 1.4 cm
Index correction for the image distance, v = x -z = ±13 cm

Conclusions
(i) The graph between 1/u and 1/v is a straight line with a slope = 1.05
(ii) Focal length of the given concave mirror = - 0.1819 m
Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror is determined from the following:
1. Focal length is calculated as,

= -18.19 cm
1. (u-v) graph = -18.25 cm
2. (1/u-1/v ) graph = - 18.51 cm

Precautions
1. The uprights should be vertical.
2. The principal axis of the mirror should be perpendicular while the central line of
the optical bench should be parallel.
3. The eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle to locate the position of
the image.
4. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle and the image
obtained from the needle.
5. The tips of object and image should be at the same height when compared to the
pole of the concave mirror.
6. Index correction should be applied for u and v.

Sources of Error
1. Parallax removed may not be perfect.
2. The uprights may not be vertical.
 Exeperiment No.8
Experiment No. 8
Aim
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Materials Required
 A drawing board
 A white sheet of paper
 A prism
 Drawing pins
 Pencil
 A half-metre scale
 Office pins
 Protractor
 Graph paper

Ray Diagram

Procedure
1. Place the white sheet of paper on the drawing board and fix it with the help of
drawing pins.
2. XX' is the straight line drawn parallel to the length of the paper such that it is in
the middle of the paper.
3. Mark points Q1, Q2, Q ...... on the straight line XX' at a distance of 5 cm each.
4. N1Q1, N2O2, ... are the normal that are drawn on the points Q1, Q2, ... as shown in
the ray diagram.
5. Make angles of 35°, 40°, .... ,60° by drawing straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, ........ With
respect to the normals.
6. To take one edge of the prism for all the observations, mark any corner of the
prism as A.
7. Mark the boundary of the prism.
Observations
The angle of prism ,A=60°

Calculations
To plot the graph between the angle of incidence Zi and the angle of deviation ZD,
take Zi along the x-axis and ZD along the y-axis. Minimum deviation Dm can be
found from the graph which would corresponding to the lowest point in the graph.

Let the value of angle of the minimum deviation,D m = 37°

Putting the A = 60° and Dm = 37° in the above equation, we get n = 1.5
Result
· The angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 37°
· Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = 1.5
. The graph indicates as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation
first decreases to attain the minimum value of Dm and then again increases with
the angle of incidence.
 Precautions
· 35°-60° is the angle of incidence that needs to be maintained.
. The placement of the pins must be vertical.
. The placement of two pins should be such that the distance is not more than
10mm.
· To represent incident and emergent rays, arrowheads must be marked.
. The angle of prism used should be the same for all the observations.

Sources of Error
. The pricks made by the pins might be thick.
· Angles might go wrong while measuring them.

Exeperiment No.9
Aim

To find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the
resistivity (specific resistance) of its material.

Materials Required

1. A metre bridge
2. A Leclanche cell (battery eliminator)
3. A galvanometer
4. A resistance box
5. A jockey
6. A one-way key
7. A resistance wire
8. A screw gauge
9. A metre scale
10.A set square
[Link] wires
12.A piece of sandpaper

Theory
Metre bridge apparatus is also known as a slide wire bridge. It is fixed on the
wooden block and consists of a long wire with a uniform cross-sectional area. It has
two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make the Wheatstone's bridge.
Then according to Wheatstone's principle, we have:
The unknown resistance can be calculated as:

Then the specific resistance of the material is calculated as:

Where,

. L is the length of the wire

. r is the radius of the wire

Observations
Length of given wire L = 100 cm
Procedure
1. The arrangement of the apparatus should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The wire whose resistance is to be determined should be connected in the right
gap between C and B without any formation of loops.
3. The resistance box should be connected in the left gap between A and B.
4. All the other connections should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Plug the key K in place of 2-ohm resistance in the resistance box.
6. The jockey should be first touched gently to the left end and then to the right end
of the bridge.
7. The deflections in the galvanometer should be in opposite directions and if it is in
one direction then the circuit connections are not correct. Note the galvanometer
deflection.
8. Let D be the null point where the jockey is touching the wire. The movement of
the jokey should be gentle from left to the right of the galvanometer.
9. Take a 12 value from the resistance box should be taken such that when the
jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire, there shouldn't be any deflection.

Least count of the screw gauge

Pitch of screw gauge = 1 mm
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale = 10
So,the L.C of the given screw gauge

0.1 mm
Calculations
Calculation for X
The value of I is determined from the position of D and recorded in column 3 of Table
1. Find length (100 - I) cm
X1+X2+X3+X4
Mean X = 4 = 0.59 ohm
Result
1. The value of unknown resistance X = 0.59 0
2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = 10
Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.
2. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
3. The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn't be rubbed.
4. The key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. The null point should be between 45cm and 55cm.
6. To avoid the error of parallax, the set square should be used to note the null
point.
7. There shouldn't be any loops in the wire.
8. The diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions t'
are mutual.
Sources of Error
1. The screws of the instrument might be loose. formation
2. The wire might be of non-uniform diameter.
3. There might be a backlash error in the screw gauge.

Experiment No.10
Aim
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by a half-deflection method and to
find its figure of merit.
Materials Required
· A battery
· A Weston type galvanometer
· Two one-way keys
· Rheostat
· Screw gauge
· Metre-scale
· Ammeter
· Connecting wires
· A piece of sandpaper
· Two resistance boxes
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Make sure that all the plugs in the resistance boxes are tight
3. Eliminate the high resistance from the resistance box and insert plug key K1
only.
4. Adjust the value of R to make the deflection maximum both in number and within
the scale.
5. Note the deflection δ.
6. Now insert the key K2 without changing the value of R. Adjust the value of S such
that the value of the deflection reduces to half of δ, i.e. δ /2
7. Note down the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times and obtains different values of R for different
values of S.
9. Find the value of the E.M.F of one of the cells with the help of a voltmeter.
Observation & calculations
Table for the resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

The number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n = 10.

1. Calculation for G
. Using the formula: G = RS
R-S
calculate G and note it down.
2. The calculation for k
Using the formula: K = E ,calculate the value of k
(R+G)θ
Result
1. The resistance of the given galvanometer = 112.23 Ω
2. The figure of merit of a given galvanometer = 0.00002125 A/dn.
Precautions
1. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
2. The e.m.f of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. High resistance from the resistance box should be introduced in the circuit
otherwise excessive current will flow through the ammeter and it can be
damaged.