Memory Practical
Memory: Memory is an active system that receives information from the senses,
puts that information into a usable form, organizes it as it stores it away, and then
retrieves the information from storage (adapted from Baddeley, 1996, 2003). It
helps in learning from our experiences. It is also how our brain processes ,stores
information so that it can be accessed later.
Three processes: the same three processes: getting the information into the
memory system, storing it there, and getting it back out.
Encoding: The first process in the memory system is to get sensory
information (sight, sound, etc.) into a form that the brain can use. This is
called encoding. Encoding is the set of mental operations that people
perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form
that is usable in the brain’s storage systems. For example, when people
hear a sound, their ears turn the vibrations in the air into neural messages
from the auditory nerve (transduction), which make it possible for the brain
to interpret that sound.
STORAGE: The next step in memory is to hold on to the information for
some period of time in a process called storage. The period of time will
actually be of different lengths, depending on the system of memory being
used. For example, in one system of memory, people hold on to
information just long enough to work with it, about 20 seconds or so. In
another system of memory, people hold on to information more or less
permanently.
RETRIEVAL: The biggest problem many people have is retrieval, that is,
getting the information they know they have out of storage. refers to
processes that access stored information. Information can only be uaed
when one is able to recover it from their memory , it involves bringing the
stored information to ones awareness so that it can be used for performing
various cognitive tasks such as problem solving or decision making.
Imagery: According to American psychological association (2018) imagery is
cognitive generation of sensory input from the five senses, individually or
collectively, which is recalled from experience or self-generated in a
nonexperienced form. Imagery is a natural, yet special, way of thinking that
involves our senses. Imagery is a type of thinking that has particularly
strong effects on our emotions and our physiology .
Abstract imagery :
Concrete imagery :
Models of memory:
Information processing model: this model of memory was proposed by
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) , this model focuses on how information is
handled or processed, through three different systems of memory. this
model of memory assumes that the processing of information for memory
storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of
three stages The processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval are seen as
part of this model.
Encoding: This is the process of extracting information from the
environment and assigning meaning to it. It involves perceiving or attending
to stimuli before they can be stored in short-term memory.
Storage: This is when information is held temporarily in short-term memory
while it is processed or transferred into long-term memory for more
permanent storage.5
Retrieval: This stage focuses on accessing previously stored information
from either short-term or long-term memory to utilize it for a current task.
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model: This model of memory was
proposed by psychologist Rumelhart and Mclelland (1986)in which memory
processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network
of neural connections. memory is not stored in one place but is distributed
across a large network of interconnected units, similar to a neural network.
Information is processed simultaneously and knowledge is represented by
the patterns of activation and the strengths of connections between these
units.
The PDP model is less about the mechanics of memory and more about the
connections and timing of memory processes. This model of memory,
derived from work in the development of artificial intelligence (AI). In the AI
world, PDP is related to connectionism, the use of artificial neural networks
to explain the mental abilities of humans .
Levels of processing model: this theory of memory was proposed by
psychologists Craik and Lockhart (1972) , this theory suggests that
information that is more “deeply processed,” or processed according
to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics
of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a
longer period of time.
Forgetting: it refers to the failure to remember material
previously learned. It is the inability to access or retrieve
information that was previously encoded and stored. It is
the loss of the ability to recall or recognize something
learned earlier .
Theories of forgetting;:
Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve: Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1913) was among the first psychologists to scientifically study
forgetting and memory. To make sure that no previous knowledge or
associations influenced his memory, he used lists of meaningless
syllables such as “GEX” and “WOL.” He memorized these lists, waited
for different amounts of time, and then tested how much he could
still recall. From this, he developed what is known as the “curve of
forgetting.” His results showed that forgetting occurs very rapidly at
first—most of the information is lost within the first hour after
learning—and then the rate of forgetting gradually slows down. This
means that people tend to forget a large portion of new information
soon after learning it unless they review it. Later research supported
Ebbinghaus’s findings, showing that the same pattern applies even
when learning meaningful material, though the decline in memory
happens more slowly. Ebbinghaus also discovered that the way we
study affects how well we remember. Trying to learn everything at
once, known as *massed practice* or “cramming,” leads to poor
long-term recall. In contrast, studying the same material over spaced
intervals—called *distributed practice*—helps strengthen memory
and improves the chances of remembering information for a longer
period.
Encoding failure: Encoding failure happens when information
never actually gets stored in memory in the first place. This means
that forgetting doesn’t always occur because we lost the memory—it
might be because the information was never properly processed or
recorded in our brain. For example, imagine your friend says
something to you while leaving the room. You might hear the words,
but if you weren’t really paying attention, your brain wouldn’t
process the message deeply enough to store it. In such cases, the
information never moves beyond the brief stage of sensory memory,
so it’s not available later when you try to recall [Link]
Nickerson and Adams (1979) studied this idea by showing how
people can recognize familiar objects, like a penny, but still fail to
recall important details about it. Most people see pennies almost
every day, yet when asked to identify the correct design from several
.
lightly different images, many struggle to do so. This shows that even
though we frequently see an object, we often don’t pay close enough
attention to encode its features into long-term memory. Therefore,
encoding failure highlights how attention and focus play a key role in
forming memories—if we don’t actively process information, it never
truly becomes a part of our memory system.
memory trace decay theory :explains forgetting as the fading of
physical changes in the brain that happen when a memory is formed.
When we learn or experience something, it creates a small change in
our brain—called a *memory trace*—which may involve the neurons
or the connections between them. However, if we don’t use or recall
that memory for a long time, these traces can weaken and eventually
fade away.
It’s similar to what happens when many people walk over the same
patch of grass and create a visible path. If people keep walking there,
the path stays clear. But if they stop using it, the grass slowly grows
back and the path disappears. In the same way, if we don’t review or
think about information we’ve learned, the memory trace can decay
over time, and the memory may be lost.
Strategies for improving memory:
Elaborative rehearsal: an encoding strategy to
facilitate the formation of memory by linking new
information to what one already knows. For
instance, when trying to remember that someone
is named George, one might think of five other
things one knows about people named George.
See depth-of-processing hypothesis; elaboration.
Imagery: Forming mental pictures, especially of concrete
information, strengthens memory by providing additional cues.
Here’s how each of them works **as a strategy for improving
memory**:
2. Distributed Practice:
This strategy improves memory by allowing the brain time to
consolidate information between study sessions. Reviewing
material over spaced intervals strengthens long-term retention
and reduces forgetting.
3. Retrieval Practice:
Actively recalling information—through quizzes, flashcards, or
self-testing—enhances memory because it reinforces neural
connections. It helps move information from short-term to
long-term memory and improve
s the ability to retrieve it later.