Simple Strain

Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied
force, to the original length.

where δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus ε is dimensionless.

Stress-strain Diagram

Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine. As the axial

load is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length is measured
at each increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place.
Knowing the original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress σ and
the strain ε can be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the stress σ along the y-axis and
the strain ε along the x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs
in form for various materials. The diagram shown below is that for a medium-carbon structural
steel.

Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile
material is one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural
steel and aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of
rupture like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the
dividing line between these two classes.
Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)

Robert HookeFrom the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a
straight line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed
by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the
stress is directly proportional to strain or

The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young's Modulus and is
equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then

Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original
shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such that
there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to E is called the elastic range. The region from E to R
is called the plastic range.

Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase in load.

Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.

Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking
strength.

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to P, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain
curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The resilience
of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to R, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-
strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.

Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The maximum
safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress
should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since proportional
limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress is taken as either the yield point or
ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield
strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.

Axial Deformation
In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the tress is proportional to strain and is given
by

To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a uniform cross-sectional area, and
the stress must not exceed the proportional limit.

If however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be determined by
considering a differential length and applying integration.

where A = ty, and y and t if variable, must be expressed in terms of x.

For a rod of unit mass ρ suspended vertically from one end, the total elongation due to its own
weight is

where ρ is in kg/m3, L is the length of the rod in mm, M is the total mass of the rod in kg, A is the
cross-sectional area of the rod in mm2, and g = 9.81 m/s2.
Stiffness, k
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to the resulting displacement. It
has the unit of N/mm.

Sample Problems
1. A uniform bar of length L, cross-sectional area A, and unit mass ρ is suspended vertically from
one end. Show that its total elongation is δ = ρgL2/2E. If the total mass of the bar is M, show also
that δ = MgL/2AE.

2. A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length of 150 m is suspended
vertically from one end. The rod supports a tensile load of 20 kN at its free end. Given that the
mass density of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E ¼ 200 GPa, find the total elongation of the rod.

3. The steel propeller shaft ABCD carries the axial loads shown in the figure. Determine the
change in the length of the shaft caused by these loads. Use E = 29 x 10 6 psi for steel.

4. The cross section of the 10-m-long flat steel bar AB has a constant thickness of 20 mm, but its
width varies as shown in the figure. Calculate the elongation of the bar due to the 100-kN axial
load. Use E = 200 GPa for steel.

5. A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in Fig. p-211.
Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the largest value of P that will not exceed
an overall deformation of 3.0 mm, or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel, 120 MPa in the
bronze, and 80 MPa in the aluminum. Assume that the assembly is suitably braced to prevent
buckling. Use Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa, and Ebr = 83 GPa.
6. The rigid bar ABC shown in Fig. P-212 is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at B.
Determine the largest load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30
ksi and the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.

7. The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods as shown in Fig. P-213, is horizontal before the
load P is applied. Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50 kN.

Shearing Deformation

Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not change in
length but undergoes a change in shape.

The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the shear strain and
is expressed as

The ratio of the shear stress τ and the shear strain γ is called the modulus of elasticity in shear or
modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa.

The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing force is
where V is the shearing force acting over an area As.

Poisson's Ratio
When a bar is subjected to a tensile loading there is an increase in length of the bar in the
direction of the applied load, but there is also a decrease in a lateral dimension perpendicular to
the load. The ratio of the sidewise deformation (or strain) to the longitudinal deformation (or
strain) is called the Poisson's ratio and is denoted by ν. For most steel, it lies in the range of 0.25
to 0.3, and 0.20 for concrete.

where εx is strain in the x-direction and εy and εz are the strains in the perpendicular direction.
The negative sign indicates a decrease in the transverse dimension when εx is positive.

Biaxial Deformation
If an element is subjected simultaneously by tensile stresses, σx and σy, in the x and y directions,
the strain in the x direction is σx/E and the strain in the y direction is σy/E. Simultaneously, the
stress in the y direction will produce a lateral contraction on the x direction of the amount -
ν εy or -ν σy/E. The resulting strain in the x direction will be

Triaxial Deformation
If an element is subjected simultaneously by three mutually perpendicular normal stresses σx, σy,
and σz, which are accompanied by strains εx, εy, and εz, respectively,
Tensile stresses and elongation are taken as positive. Compressive stresses and contraction are
taken as negative.

Relationship Between E, G, and ν

The relationship between modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G and Poisson's ratio ν is:

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Volume Expansion, K

The bulk modulus of elasticity K is a measure of a resistance of a material to change in volume
without change in shape or form. It is given as

where V is the volume and ΔV is change in volume. The ratio ΔV/V is called volumetric strain and
can be expressed as

Sample Problems

1. A solid cylinder of diameter d carries an axial load P. Show that its change in diameter is
4Pν / πEd.

2. A rectangular steel block is 3 inches long in the x direction, 2 inches long in the y direction, and
4 inches long in the z direction. The block is subjected to a tri-axial loading of three uniformly
distributed forces as follows: 48 kips tension in the x direction, 60 kips compression in the y
direction, and 54 kips tension in the z direction. If ν = 0.30 and E = 29 × 106 psi, determine the
single uniformly distributed load in the x direction that would produce the same deformation in
the y direction as the original loading.

3. A welded steel cylindrical drum made of a 10-mm plate has an internal diameter of 1.20 m.
Compute the change in diameter that would be caused by an internal pressure of 1.5 MPa.
Assume that Poisson's ratio is 0.30 and E = 200 GPa.

4. A 6-in.-long bronze tube, with closed ends, is 3 in. in diameter with a wall thickness of 0.10 in. With no
internal pressure, the tube just fits between two rigid end walls. Calculate the longitudinal and tangential
stresses for an internal pressure of 6000 psi. Assume ν = 1/3 and E = 12 × 106 psi.
Statically Indeterminate

1. A steel bar 50 mm in diameter and 2 m long is surrounded by a shell of a cast iron 5 mm thick.
Compute the load that will compress the combined bar a total of 0.8 mm in the length of 2 m. For
steel, E = 200 GPa, and for cast iron, E = 100 GPa.

2. A reinforced concrete column 200 mm in diameter is designed to carry an axial compressive

load of 300 kN. Determine the required area of the reinforcing steel if the allowable stresses are
6 MPa and 120 MPa for the concrete and steel, respectively. Use E co = 14 GPa and Est = 200 GPa.

3. The rigid block of mass M is supported by the three symmetrically placed rods. The ends of the
rods were level before the block was attached. Determine the largest allowable value of M if the
properties of the rods are as listed (σw is the working stress):

4. The rigid platform in Fig. P-239 has negligible mass and rests on two steel bars, each 250.00 mm long.
The center bar is aluminum and 249.90 mm long. Compute the stress in the aluminum bar after the center
load P = 400 kN has been applied. For each steel bar, the area is 1200 mm2 and E = 200 GPa. For the
aluminum bar, the area is 2400 mm2 and E = 70 GPa.

5. The two vertical rods attached to the light rigid bar in Fig. P-251 are identical except for length. Before
the load W was attached, the bar was horizontal and the rods were stress-free. Determine the load in each
rod if W = 6600 lb.
Thermal Stress

Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount δ T, is given by

where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, L is the length in meter, Ti and Tf are
the initial and final temperatures, respectively in °C. For steel, α = 11.25 × 10-6 m/m°C.

If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no load or stress will be induced in the
structure. In some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal stress is
created. The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.

For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown, the thermal stress is
computed as:

deformation due to temperature changes;

deformation due to equivalent axial stress;

where σ is the thermal stress in MPa, E is the modulus of elasticity of the rod in MPa.

If the wall yields a distance of x as shown, the following calculations will be made:

where σ represents the thermal stress.

Take note that as the temperature rises above the normal, the rod will be in compression, and if
the temperature drops below the normal, the rod is in tension.
Sample Problems

1. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed points. The
tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what temperature will the stress
be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in/(in·°F) and E = 29 × 106 psi.

2. A bronze bar 3 m long with a cross sectional area of 320 mm2 is placed between two rigid
walls as shown in Fig. P-265. At a temperature of -20°C, the gap Δ = 2.5 mm. Find the
temperature at which the compressive stress in the bar will be 35 MPa. Use α = 18.0 × 10 -6
m/(m·°C) and E = 80 GPa.

3. A rigid bar of negligible weight is supported as shown in Fig. P-271. If W = 80 kN, compute the
temperature change that will cause the stress in the steel rod to be 55 MPa. Assume the
coefficients of linear expansion are 11.7 µm/(m·°C) for steel and 18.9 µm/(m·°C) for bronze.

4. For the assembly in Fig. 271, find the stress in each rod if the temperature rises 30°C after a
load W = 120 kN is applied.